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1. Changes in frontal and posterior cortical activity underlie the early emergence of executive function

   https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12602  

   Buss, Aaron T. ; Spencer, John P. ( September 2017 , Developmental Science)

   Executive function (EF) is a key cognitive process that emerges in early childhood and facilitates children's ability to control their own behavior. Individual differences inEFskills early in life are predictive of quality‐of‐life outcomes 30 years later (Moffitt et al., 2011). What changes in the brain give rise to this critical cognitive ability? Traditionally, frontal cortex growth is thought to underlie changes in cognitive control (Bunge & Zelazo, 2006; Moriguchi & Hiraki, 2009). However, more recent data highlight the importance of long‐range cortical interactions between frontal and posterior brain regions. Here, we test the hypothesis that developmental changes inEFskills reflect changes in how posterior and frontal brain regions work together. Results show that children who fail a “hard” version of anEFtask and who are thought to have an immature frontal cortex, show robust frontal activity in an “easy” version of the task. We show how this effect can arise via posterior brain regions that provide on‐the‐job training for the frontal cortex, effectively teaching the frontal cortex adaptive patterns of brain activity on “easy”EFtasks. In this case, frontal cortex activation can be seen as both the cause and the consequence of rule switching. Results also show that older children have differential posterior cortical activation on “easy” and “hard” tasks that reflects continued refinement of brain networks even in skilled children. These data set the stage for new training programs to foster the development ofEFskills in at‐risk children.

    

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2. Development of inhibitory control during childhood and its relations to early temperament and later social anxiety: unique insights provided by latent growth modeling and signal detection theory

   https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13025  

   Troller‐Renfree, Sonya V. ; Buzzell, George A. ; Bowers, Maureen E. ; Salo, Virginia C. ; Forman‐Alberti, Alissa ; Smith, Elizabeth ; Papp, Leanna J. ; McDermott, Jennifer M. ; Pine, Daniel S. ; Henderson, Heather A. ; et al ( February 2019 , Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry)

   Children with the temperament of behavioral inhibition (BI) face increased risk for social anxiety. However, not all children withBIdevelop anxiety symptoms. Inhibitory control (IC) has been suggested as a moderator of the pathway betweenBIand social anxiety. This study uses longitudinal data to characterize development ofICand tests the hypothesis thatICmoderates associations between earlyBIand later social anxiety symptoms.

   Children completed a Go/Nogo task at ages 5, 7, and 10 years as part of a longitudinal study ofBI(measured at 2–3 years) and social anxiety symptoms (measured at 12 years). To assessICdevelopment, response strategy (criterion) and inhibitory performance (d′) were characterized using signal detection theory. Latent growth models were used to characterize the development ofICand examine relations amongBI,ICparameters, and social anxiety symptoms.

   ICresponse strategy did not change between 5 and 10 years of age, whereasICperformance improved over time.BIscores in toddlerhood predicted neither initial levels (intercept) nor changes (slope) inICresponse strategy orICperformance. However, between ages 5 and 10, rate of change inICperformance, but not response strategy, moderated relations betweenBIand later parent‐reported social anxiety symptoms. Specifically, greater age‐related improvements inICperformance predicted higher levels of social anxiety in highBIchildren.

   ICdevelopment in childhood occurs independent ofBIlevels. However, rapid increases inICperformance moderate risk for social anxiety symptoms in children withBI. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

    

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3. Acoustic enhancement of sleep slow oscillations in mild cognitive impairment

   https://doi.org/10.1002/acn3.796  

   Papalambros, Nelly A. ; Weintraub, Sandra ; Chen, Tammy ; Grimaldi, Daniela ; Santostasi, Giovanni ; Paller, Ken A. ; Zee, Phyllis C. ; Malkani, Roneil G. ( July 2019 , Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology)

   Slow‐wave activity (SWA) during sleep is reduced in people with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) and is related to sleep‐dependent memory consolidation. Acoustic stimulation of slow oscillations has proven effective in enhancingSWAand memory in younger and older adults. In this study we aimed to determine whether acoustic stimulation during sleep boostsSWAand improves memory performance in people withaMCI.

   Nine adults withaMCI(72 ± 8.7 years) completed one night of acoustic stimulation (stim) and one night of sham stimulation (sham) in a blinded, randomized crossover study. Acoustic stimuli were delivered phase‐locked to the upstate of the endogenous sleep slow‐waves. Participants completed a declarative recall task with 44 word‐pairs before and after sleep.

   During intervals of acoustic stimulation,SWAincreased by >10% over sham intervals (P < 0.01), but memory recall increased in only five of the nine patients. The increase inSWAwith stimulation was associated with improved morning word recall (r = 0.78,P = 0.012).

   Acoustic stimulation delivered during slow‐wave sleep over one night was effective for enhancingSWAin individuals withaMCI. Given established relationships betweenSWAand memory, a larger or more prolonged enhancement may be needed to consistently improve memory inaMCI.

    

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4. Influence of age at seizure onset on the acquisition of neurodevelopmental skills in an SCN8A cohort

   https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.16288  

   Encinas, Alejandra C. ; Moore, Ida ; Watkins, Joseph C. ; Hammer, Michael F. ( July 2019 , Epilepsia)

   To characterize a cohort of patients withSCN8A‐related epilepsy and to perform analyses to identify correlations involving the acquisition of neurodevelopmental skills.

   We analyzed patient data (n = 91) submitted to an online registry tailored to characteristics of children withSCN8Avariants. Participants provided information on the history of their child's seizures, medications, comorbidities, and developmental skills based on the DenverIIitems. Spearman rank tests were utilized to test for correlations among a variety of aspects of seizures, medications, and neurodevelopmental progression.

   The 91 participants carried 71 missense variants (41 newly reported) and three truncating variants. Ages at seizure onset ranged from birth to >12 months of age (mean ± SD = 5 months 21 days ± 7 months 14 days). Multiple seizure types with multimodal onset times and developmental delay were observed as general features of this cohort. We found a positive correlation between a developmental score based upon percentage of acquired skills and the age at seizure onset, current seizure freedom, and initial febrile seizures. Analyses of cohort subgroups revealed clear distinctions between patients who had a single reported variant inSCN8Aand those with an additional variant reported in a gene other thanSCN8A, as well as between patients with different patterns of regression before and at seizure onset.

   This is the first study of anSCN8A patient cohort of this size and for which correlations between age at seizure onset and neurodevelopment were investigated. Our correlation studies suggest that variants of uncertain significance should be considered in assessing children withSCN8A‐related disorders. This study substantially improves the characterization of this patient population and our understanding of the neurodevelopmental effects associated with seizures forSCN8A patients, and provides a clinical context at initial presentation that may be prognostic for developmental outcome.

    

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5. Age‐specific and context‐specific responses of the medial extended amygdala in the developing prairie vole

   https://doi.org/10.1002/dneu.22648  

   Hiura, Lisa C. ; Kelly, Aubrey M. ; Ophir, Alexander G. ( November 2018 , Developmental Neurobiology)

   The social needs of organisms change as they mature. Yet, little is known about the mechanisms that subserve processing social interactions or how these systems develop. The medial extended amygdala (meEA) is comprised of the medial bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTm) and the medial amygdala (MeA). This neural complex holds great promise for understanding how the social brain processes information. We assessed expression of the immediate early genecFos and the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) at three developmental time‐points (postnatal day [PND] 2, 9, and 21) to determine how developing prairie voles process familial social contact, separation, and reunion. We demonstrate that (1)BSTmcFos responses were sensitive to separation from family units atPND9 andPND21, but not atPND2; (2) MeAcFos responses were sensitive to reunion with the family, but only inPND21 pups; (3)BSTmTHneurons did not exhibit differential responses to social condition at any age; and (4) MeATHneurons responded strongly to social contact (remaining with family or following reunion), but only atPND21. Our results suggest that the sub‐units of the meEAbecome functionally responsive at different developmental time points, and are differentially activated in response to distinct social contexts. Overall, our results support the notion that interconnected regions of the meEAfollow divergent developmental timelines and are sensitive to distinct properties of social contexts.

    

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