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   Spagnolie, Saverio E.; Underhill, Patrick T. (March 2023, Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics)

   We review the literature on swimming in complex fluids. A classification is proposed by comparing the length- and timescales of a swimmer with those of nearby obstacles, interpreted broadly, extending from rigid or soft confining boundaries to molecules that confer the bulk fluid with complex stresses. A third dimension in the classification is the concentration of swimmers, which incorporates fluids whose complexity arises purely by the collective motion of swimming organisms. For each of the eight system types that we identify, we provide a background and describe modern research findings. Although some types have seen a great deal of attention for decades, others remain uncharted waters still open and awaiting exploration. 

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   Jellyfish have provided insight into important components of animal propulsion, such as suction thrust, passive energy recapture, vortex wall effects, and the rotational mechanics of turning. These traits are critically important to jellyfish because they must propel themselves despite severe limitations on force production imposed by rudimentary cnidarian muscular structures. Consequently, jellyfish swimming can occur only by careful orchestration of fluid interactions. Yet these mechanics may be more broadly instructive because they also characterize processes shared with other animal swimmers, whose structural and neurological complexity can obscure these interactions. In comparison with other animal models, the structural simplicity, comparative energetic efficiency, and ease of use in laboratory experimentation allow jellyfish to serve as favorable test subjects for exploration of the hydrodynamic bases of animal propulsion. These same attributes also make jellyfish valuable models for insight into biomimetic or bioinspired engineering of swimming vehicles. Here, we review advances in understanding of propulsive mechanics derived from jellyfish models as a pathway toward the application of animal mechanics to vehicle designs. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Marine Science, Volume 13 is January 3, 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates. 

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