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   Anjur-Dietrich, Maya I. ; Kelleher, Colm P. ; Needleman, Daniel J. ( February 2021 , Cells)

   Chromosome segregation—the partitioning of genetic material into two daughter cells—is one of the most crucial processes in cell division. In all Eukaryotes, chromosome segregation is driven by the spindle, a microtubule-based, self-organizing subcellular structure. Extensive research performed over the past 150 years has identified numerous commonalities and contrasts between spindles in different systems. In this review, we use simple coarse-grained models to organize and integrate previous studies of chromosome segregation. We discuss sites of force generation in spindles and fundamental mechanical principles that any understanding of chromosome segregation must be based upon. We argue that conserved sites of force generation may interact differently in different spindles, leading to distinct mechanical mechanisms of chromosome segregation. We suggest experiments to determine which mechanical mechanism is operative in a particular spindle under study. Finally, we propose that combining biophysical experiments, coarse-grained theories, and evolutionary genetics will be a productive approach to enhance our understanding of chromosome segregation in the future. 

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5. When and why does sex chromosome dosage compensation evolve?: Evolution of sex chromosome dosage compensation

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   Chandler, Christopher H. ( February 2017 , Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences)