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1. The emergence and initial impact of stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) in the United States Virgin Islands

   https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.715329  

   Brandt, Marilyn E ; Ennis, Rosmin S. ; Meiling, Sonora S. ; Townsend, Joseph ; Cobleigh, Kathryn ; Glahn, Adam ; Quetel, Jason ; Brandtneris, Viktor ; Henderson, Leslie M.: ( August 2021 , Frontiers in marine science)

   Coral communities in the Caribbean face a new and deadly threat in the form of the highly virulent multi-host stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD). In late January of 2019, a disease with signs and characteristics matching that of SCTLD was found affecting a reef off the coast of St. Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI). Identification of its emergence in the USVI provided the opportunity to document the initial evolution of its spatial distribution, coral species susceptibility characteristics, and its comparative impact on coral cover at affected and unaffected coral reef locations. Re-assessments at sentinel sites and long-term monitoring locations were used to track the spread of the disease, assess species affected, and quantify its impact. The disease was initially limited to the southwest of St. Thomas for several months, then spread around the island and to the neighboring island of St. John to the east. Differences in disease prevalence among species were similar to reports of SCTLD from other regions. Highly affected species included Colpophyllia natans, Eusmilia fastigiata, Montastraea cavernosa, Orbicella spp., and Pseudodiploria strigosa. Dendrogyra cylindrus and Meandrina meandrites were also highly affected but showed more variability in disease prevalence, likely due to initial low abundances and the rapid loss of colonies due to disease. Siderastrea spp. were less affected and showed lower prevalence. Species previously reported as unaffected or data deficient that were found to be affected by SCTLD included Agaricia spp., Madracis spp., and Mycetophyllia spp. We also observed multi-focal lesions at SCTLD-affected sites on colonies of Porites astreoides, despite that poritids have previously been considered low or not susceptible to SCTLD. Loss of coral cover due to acute tissue loss diseases, which were predominantly SCTLD, was significant at several monitoring locations and was more impactful than previous mass bleaching events at some sites. There are no signs that the USVI SCTLD outbreak is abating, therefore it is likely that this disease will become widespread across the U.S. Caribbean and British Virgin Islands in the near future. 

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2. 3D Photogrammetry Reveals Dynamics of Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease (SCTLD) Lesion Progression Across a Thermal Stress Event

   https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.597643  

   Meiling, Sonora ; Muller, Erinn M. ; Smith, Tyler B. ; Brandt, Marilyn E. ( December 2020 , Frontiers in Marine Science)

   null (Ed.)

   Stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) was first observed in the United States Virgin Islands in January 2019 on a reef at Flat Cay off the island of St. Thomas. A year after its emergence, the disease had spread to several reefs around St. Thomas causing significant declines in overall coral cover. Rates of tissue loss are an important metric in the study of coral disease ecology, as they can inform many aspects of etiology such as disease susceptibility and resistance among species, and provide critical parameters for modeling the effects of disease among heterogenous reef communities. The present study quantified tissue loss rates attributed to SCTLD among six abundant reef building species ( Colpophyllia natans, Montastraea cavernosa, Diploria labyrinthiformis, Pseudodiploria strigosa, Orbicella annularis , and Porites astreoides ). Field-based 3D models of diseased corals, taken approximately weekly, indicated that the absolute rates of tissue loss from SCTLD slowed through time, corresponding with the accumulation of thermal stress that led to mass bleaching. Absolute tissue loss rates were comparable among species prior to the bleaching event but diverged during and remained different after the bleaching event. Proportional tissue loss rates did not vary among species or through time, but there was considerable variability among M. cavernosa colonies. SCTLD poses a significant threat to reefs across the Caribbean due to its persistence through time, wide range of susceptible coral species, and unprecedented tissue loss rates. Intervention and management efforts should be increased during and immediately following thermal stress events in order maximize resource distribution when disease prevalence is decreased. 

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3. Diversity and disease: The effects of coral diversity on prevalence and impacts of stony coral tissue loss disease in Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands

   https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.682688  

   Costa, S. V. ; Hibberts, S. J. ; Olive, D. A. ; Budd, K. A. ; Long, A. E. ; Meiling, S. S. ; Miller, M. B. ; Vaughn, K. M. ; Carrion, C. I. ; Cohen, M. B. ; et al ( June 2021 , Frontiers in marine science)

   Stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) was first observed in St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) in January 2019. This disease affects at least 20 scleractinian coral species; however, it is not well understood how reef diversity affects its spread or its impacts on reef ecosystems. With a large number of susceptible species, SCTLD may not follow the diversity-disease hypothesis, which proposes that high species diversity is negatively correlated with disease prevalence. Instead, SCTLD may have a higher prevalence and a greater impact on reefs with higher coral diversity. To test this, in 2020 we resampled 54 sites around St. Thomas previously surveyed in 2017 or 2019 by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Coral Reef Monitoring Program. These sites represented a variety of species diversity values [categorized into poor (<12 spp. rich.) and rich (12 spp. rich.)] in multiple disease zones (Endemic: disease present  9 months; Epidemic: disease present 2–6 months; Control and Emergent: disease present no disease/<2 months). We hypothesized that, contrary to the diversity-disease hypothesis, sites with high species diversity (as measured by species richness or Simpson’s index) would have higher disease prevalence within the epidemic zone, and that high species diversity sites would have a greater impact from disease within the endemic zone. Results indicated a significant positive relationship between disease prevalence and diversity in the epidemic zone, and a similar trend in the endemic zones. Additionally, a negative relationship was seen between pre-outbreak diversity and loss of diversity and coral cover within the endemic zone. This supports the hypothesis that higher diversity predicts greater disease impact and suggests that SCTLD does not follow the diversity-disease hypothesis. Within the epidemic zone, the species with the highest SCTLD prevalence were Dendrogyra cylindrus, Colpophyllia natans, and Meandrina meandrites, while in the endemic zone, Diploria labyrinthiformis, Pseudodiploria strigosa, Montastraea cavernosa, and Siderastrea siderea had the highest SCTLD prevalence. Understanding the relationship between species diversity and SCTLD will help managers predict the most vulnerable reefs, which should be prioritized within the USVI and greater Caribbean region. 

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4. Transmission of stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) in simulated ballast water confirms the potential for ship-born spread

   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-21868-z  

   Studivan, Michael S. ; Baptist, Michelle ; Molina, Vanessa ; Riley, Scott ; First, Matthew ; Soderberg, Nash ; Rubin, Ewelina ; Rossin, Ashley ; Holstein, Daniel M. ; Enochs, Ian C. ( December 2022 , Scientific Reports)

   Abstract Stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) remains an unprecedented epizootic disease, representing a substantial threat to the persistence and health of coral reef ecosystems in the Tropical Western Atlantic since its first observation near Miami, Florida in 2014. In addition to transport between adjacent reefs indicative of waterborne pathogen(s) dispersing on ocean currents, it has spread throughout the Caribbean to geographically- and oceanographically-isolated reefs, in a manner suggestive of ship and ballast water transmission. Here we evaluate the potential for waterborne transmission of SCTLD including via simulated ballast water, and test the efficacy of commonly-used UV radiation treatment of ballast water. Two species of reef-building corals ( Orbicella faveolata and Pseudodiploria strigosa ) were subjected to (1) disease-exposed or UV-treated disease-exposed water, and (2) a ballast hold time series of disease-exposed water in two carefully-controlled experiments to evaluate transmission. Our experiments demonstrated transmission of SCTLD through water, rather than direct contact between diseased and healthy corals. While UV treatment of disease-exposed water led to a 50% reduction in the number of corals exhibiting disease signs in both species, the statistical risk of transmission and volume of water needed to elicit SCTLD lesions remained similar to untreated disease-exposed water. The ballast hold time (24 h vs. 120 h) did not have a significant effect on the onset of visible disease signs for either species, though there appeared to be some evidence of a concentration effect for P. strigosa as lesions were only observed after the 120 h ballast hold time. Results from both experiments suggest that the SCTLD pathogens can persist in both untreated and UV-treated ballast water and remain pathogenic. Ballast water may indeed pose a threat to the continued spread and persistence of SCTLD, warranting further investigation of additional ballast water treatments and pathogen detection methods. 

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5. Coral disease outbreak at the remote Flower Garden Banks, Gulf of Mexico

   https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1111749  

   Johnston, Michelle A. ; Studivan, Michael S. ; Enochs, Ian C. ; Correa, Adrienne M. ; Besemer, Nicole ; Eckert, Ryan J. ; Edwards, Kimberly ; Hannum, Ryan ; Hu, Xinping ; Nuttall, Marissa ; et al ( January 2023 , Frontiers in Marine Science)

   East and West Flower Garden Bank (FGB) are part of Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary (FGBNMS) in the northwest Gulf of Mexico. This geographically-isolated reef system contains extensive coral communities with the highest coral cover (>50%) in the continental United States due, in part, to their remoteness and depth, and have historically exhibited low incidence of coral disease and bleaching despite ocean warming. Yet in late August 2022, disease-like lesions on seven coral species were reported during routine monitoring surveys on East and West FGB (2.1–2.6% prevalence). A series of rapid response cruises were conducted in September and October 2022 focused on 1) characterizing signs and epidemiological aspects of the disease across FGB and within long-term monitoring sites, 2) treating affected coral colonies with Base 2B plus amoxicillin, and 3) collecting baseline images through photostations and photomosaics. Marginal and/or multi-focal lesions and tissue loss were observed, often associated with substantial fish and invertebrate predation, affecting the dominant coral species Pseudodiploria strigosa (7–8% lesion prevalence), Colpophyllia natans (11–18%), and Orbicella spp. (1%). Characterizing this disease event during its early epidemic phase at East and West FGB provides a critical opportunity to observe how coral disease functions in a relatively healthy coral ecosystem versus on reefs chronically affected by various stressors (e.g., Caribbean reefs adjacent to urban centers). Insights into the etiology, spread, and impacts of the disease can ultimately inform efforts to mitigate its effects on coral communities. 

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