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1. Situating presence within extended reality for teacher training: Validation of the extended Reality Presence Scale (XRPS) in preservice teacher use of immersive 360 video

   https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13058  

   Gandolfi, Enrico ; Kosko, Karl W. ; Ferdig, Richard E. ( December 2020 , British Journal of Educational Technology)

   The use of video is commonplace for professional preparation in education and other fields. Research has provided evidence that the use of video in these contexts can lead to increased noticing and reflection. However, educators now have access to evolving forms of video such as 360 video. The purpose of this study was to adapt and validate an instrument for assessing immersive 360 video use in an undergraduate preservice teacher university training program. Data provided evidence of the validity of theExtended Reality Presence Scale(XRPS) for 360 video research in preservice teacher professional development. Moreover, evidence from the study suggests that those with higher feelings of presence are less likely to jump around (or twitch) while watching 360 videos. The main implications are that: a) the XRPS is a validated and reliable instrument and b) more research is needed to examine the presence and practices for in‐service and preservice teachers while watching 360 video.

   What is already known about this topic?

   Instructional videos are widely used in preservice teacher training.

   360 videos show promise for improving preservice teacher professional development in terms of immersion and presence.

   What this paper adds?

   An instrument for assessing 360 video teacher presence is presented (XRPS), targeting a current gap in the literature.

   Data provided evidence of the validity of the tool for future 360 video research and integration.

   Implications for practice and/or policy

   Practitioners can use XRPS for assessing preservice teachers’ experiences in immersive environments and evaluating 360 videos.

   Higher feelings of presence are associated with more focused viewpoints. Therefore, practitioners should support and facilitate this watching behavior.

   Higher scores of presence are associated with a perceived sense of agency and emotional attachment. Therefore, 360 videos should include design elements promoting these feelings.

    

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2. Evaluating how extended reality delivery device and preservice teacher major impact presence in immersive learning environments

   https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13446  

   Gandolfi, Enrico ; Ferdig, Richard E. ; Kosko, Karl W. ( February 2024 , British Journal of Educational Technology)

   Teacher education has begun to embrace the use of 360 videos to improve preservice teachers' (PSTs) engagement and immersion. While recent research on such use is promising overall, there are specific questions that have been left unanswered about the construct of presence in 360 videos. More specifically, research has yet to fully explore how video delivery devices and PST characteristics may impact presence. The purpose of this study was to respond to this gap in the literature by examining PST major, delivery device (ie, head mounted display vs. flat screen), and the interaction between the two in informing presence. A total of 93 PSTs watched 360 videos and then completed a questionnaire. Findings indicated that presence in head‐mounted displays was related to emotions and agency. Conversely, presence with flat screens meant familiarity and control. Moreover, PST major was a predictor of presence, suggesting that 360 videos should be personalized according to PST career and professional goals. Finally, the interaction effect of preparing to teach K‐12 mathematics and wearing a head‐mounted display had a negative and statistically significant effect on participants' perceived presence, thus indicating a non‐cumulative effect.

   What is already known about this topic

   360 videos are increasingly used to support preservice teacher training.

   360 videos for teacher education foster immersion, presence, and noticing skills.

   What this paper adds

   Empirical evidence that 360 videos experienced with head‐mounted display facilitate agency and emotional involvement.

   Empirical evidence that 360 videos experienced with flat screens facilitate feelings of control.

   Data showed that preservice teachers' content area (math) was a positive predictor of presence in 360 videos.

   Implications for practice and/or policy

   Head‐mounted displays show promise as a delivery mode for 360 videos in teacher education.

   360 videos should be personalized according to PST career and professional goals.

   The eXtended Reality Presence Scale is confirmed as a robust instrument to measure presence in immersive environments.

   More research is needed to evaluate the scalability of this approach in other contexts.

    

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3. Effect and influence of ambisonic audio in viewing 360 video

   Ferdig, R. E. ( January 2020 , Journal of virtual worlds research)

   null (Ed.)

   Research has provided evidence of the value of producing multiple representations of content for learners (e.g., verbal, visual, etc.). However, much of the research has acknowledged changes in visual technologies while not recognizing or utilizing related audio innovations. For instance, teacher education students who were once taught through two-dimensional video are now being presented with interactive, three-dimensional content (e.g., simulations or 360 video). Users in old and new formats, however, still typically receive monophonic sound. A limited number of research studies exist that have examined the impact of combining three-dimensional sound to match three-dimensional video in learning environments. The purpose of this study was to respond to this gap by comparing the outcomes of watching 360 video with either monophonic or ambisonic audio. Results provided evidence that ambisonic audio increased perceived presence for those familiar with the content being taught, led to differentiation in what ambisonic viewers noticed compared to monophonic groups, and improved participant focus in watching the 360 video. Implications for the development and implementation into virtual worlds are discussed. 

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4. Noticing mathematics from multiple perspectives

   Kosko, K. W. ; Ferdig, R. E. ; Gandolfi, E. ( January 2022 , Psychology of Mathematics Education - North America)

   Olanoff, D. ; Johnson, K. ; Spitzer, S. (Ed.)

   A key aspect of professional noticing includes attending to students’ mathematics (Jacobs et al., 2010). Initially, preservice teachers (PSTs) may attend to non-mathematics specific aspects of a classroom before attending to children’s procedures and then, eventually their conceptual reasoning (Barnhart & van Es, 2015). Use of 360 videos has been observed to increase the likelihood that PSTs will attend to more mathematics-specific student actions. This is due to an increased perceptual capacity, or the capacity of a representation to convey what is perceivable in a scenario (Kosko et al., in press). A 360 camera records a classroom omnidirectionally, allowing PSTs viewing the video to look in any direction. Moreover, several 360 cameras can be used in a single room to allow the viewer to move from one point in the recorded classroom to another; defined by Zolfaghari et al., 2020 as multi-perspective 360 video. Although multiperspective 360 has tremendous potential for immersion and presence (Gandolfi et al., 2021), we have not located empirical research clarifying whether or how this may affect PSTs’ professional noticing. Rather, most published research focuses on the use of a single camera. Given the dearth of research, we explored PSTs’ viewing of and teacher noticing related to a six-camera multiperspective 360 video. We examined 22 early childhood PSTs’ viewing of a 4th grade class using pattern blocks to find an equivalent fraction to 3/4. Towards the end of the video, one student suggested 8/12 as an equivalent fraction, but a peer claimed it was 9/12. The teacher prompts the peer to “prove it” and a brief discussion ensues before the video ends. After viewing the video, PSTs’ written noticings were solicited and coded. In our initial analysis, we examined whether PSTs attended to students’ fraction reasoning. Although many PSTs attended to whether 8/12 or 9/12 was the correct answer, only 7 of 22 attended to students’ part-whole reasoning of the fractions. Next, we examined the variance in how frequently PSTs switched their camera perspective using the unalikeability statistic. Unalikeability (U2) is a nonparametric measure of variance, ranging from 0 to 1, for nominal variables (Kader & Perry, 2007). Participants scores ranged from 0 to 0.80 (Median=0.47). We then compared participants’ U2 statistics for whether they attended (or not) to students mathematical reasoning in their written noticing. Findings revealed no statistically significant difference (U=38.5, p=0.316). On average, PSTs used 2-3 camera perspectives, and there was no observable benefit to using a higher number of cameras. These findings suggest that multiple perspectives may be useful for some, but not all PSTs’. 

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5. Preservice teacher noticing and perceptual capacity with 360 video and VR headsets.

   Ferdig, R. E. ( January 2020 , Proceedings of the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education)

   The use of video is prevalent in teacher education. it has been shown to be successful in varied content areas, with multiple contexts, and for differing audiences. Even with its successes, there are several known challenges with capturing and using classroom video to inform teacher professional development and preservice teacher education. To address these issues, drawing on a grant from the National Science Foundation, we have created an extended reality initiative (XRI) that provides information about equipment, software tools to edit single and multi-perspective videos, and a collection of videos for instant use in preservice and in-service classrooms. In addition to the deliverable outcomes, the project has shown that 360 and VR can improve preservice teacher noticing through increased perceptual capacity. 

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