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1. Executive function deficits in kindergarten predict repeated academic difficulties across elementary school

   https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.06.009  

   Morgan, P. L.; Farkas, G.; Wang, Y.; Hillemeier, M. M..; Maczuga, S. (January 2019, Early childhood research quarterly)

   We investigated whether and to what extent deficits in executive functions (EF) increase kindergarten children’s risk for repeated academic difficulties across elementary school. We did so by using growth mixture modeling to analyze the first- through third-grade achievement growth trajectories in mathematics, reading, and science of a large (N = 11,010) sample of children participating in the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort of 2011 (ECLS-K: 2011). The modeling yielded four growth trajectory classes in mathematics, reading, and science. We observed an at-risk trajectory class in each academic domain using a standardized scale. Children in the at-risk class initially averaged very low levels of achievement (i.e., about two standard deviations below the mean) in first grade. Their trajectories remained very low or declined further by third grade. Trajectories for other classes were also generally flat but started and remained at higher levels of standardized achievement. Deficits in EF, particularly in working memory, increased kindergarten children’s risk of experiencing repeated mathematics, reading, and science difficulties across elementary school. These predictive relations replicated across three academic domains following statistical control for domain-specific and -general autoregressors as well as socio-demographic characteristics. 

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2. Executive functioning deficits increase kindergarten children’s risk for reading and mathematics difficulties in first grade

   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.01.004  

   Morgan, P. L. (July 2017, Contemporary educational psychology)

   Whether executive functioning deficits result in children experiencing learning difficulties is presently unclear. Yet evidence for these hypothesized causal relations has many implications for early intervention design and delivery. We used a multi-year panel design, multiple criterion and predictor variable measures, extensive statistical control for potential confounds including autoregressive prior histories of both reading and mathematics difficulties, and additional epidemiological methods to preliminarily examine these hypothesized relations. Results from multivariate logistic regression analyses of a nationally representative and longitudinal sample of 18,080 children (i.e., the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Kindergarten Cohort of 2011, or ECLS-K: 2011) indicated that working memory and, separately, cognitive flexibility deficits uniquely increased kindergarten children’s risk of experiencing reading as well as mathematics difficulties in first grade. The risks associated with working memory deficits were particularly strong. Experimentally-evaluated, multi-component interventions designed to help young children with reading or mathematics difficulties may also need to remediate early deficits in executive function, particularly in working memory. 

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3. Cognition and math and reading overlap in community college students

   Cirino, PT; Salentine, C; Boada, C; Wall, J (February 2024, Poster presented at the 52nd annual meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, New York, NY.)

   Objective Math and reading are related at the disability level and along the continuum of skill (Cirino, 2022). Cognitive correlates of math and reading in children are well-known separately, with a recent focus on the reason for their overlap. However, less is known about these issues in community college (CC) students despite more than half of post-secondary education occurring at this level. Here we assess cognitive predictors of math and reading (language, working memory, processing speed, nonverbal reasoning, attention) in CC students, outcome overlap, and the extent that predictors account for overlap. We expect all predictors to relate to achievement, with language and working memory as the strongest predictors, and accounting for the most overlap. We also expect more overlap and stronger prediction for complex outcomes (reading comprehension and math applications) relative to foundational skills (word reading and computations). Participants and Methods Participants were 94 CC students enrolled in their first math class. Approximately half the students were taking developmental coursework. Participants were administered four KTEA-3 measures: Letter-Word Reading, Reading Comprehension, Math Computation, and Math Concepts and Application. Language consisted of Vocabulary (K-BIT-2), and Elision and Rapid Naming subtests of the CTOPP-2. Working memory was assessed with two complex span measures (Symmetry Span and Reading Span). Processing speed was measured with the WAIS-IV, and nonverbal reasoning with the K-BIT-2. Attention was assessed via a researcher-designed continuous performance task and a self-rating scale. Multiple regression assessed cognitive prediction for each achievement measure; and partial correlation evaluated overlap. Results For computations, all predictors accounted for R2=53% variance; nonverbal reasoning and elision were unique predictors (p<.05). For math applications, R2=58%, with unique prediction for nonverbal reasoning, vocabulary, elision, and symmetry span. For word reading, R2=50%, with unique prediction for vocabulary, elision, and reading span. Finally, for reading comprehension, R2=47%, with unique prediction for vocabulary and nonverbal reasoning. Regarding overlap, computations and word reading correlated r=.50, and math applications and reading comprehension r=.57, which is higher than a recent meta-analysis (Unal et al., 2023). Language was the strongest contributor of overlap; these variables reduced the correlation for foundational achievement by 50%, and for complex achievement, by 32%. Other domains accounted for little overlap, despite significant zero-order correlations. Substantive results were generally similar when covariates were considered. Conclusions Individual prediction was dominated by language, nonverbal reasoning, and working memory variables. Math and reading performances were strongly related, and language was the strongest predictor of this overlap, which is only partially consistent with extant literature but adds context and generalization for CC students. Attention and processing speed were only weakly related to performance, which may reflect the overlearned nature of these skills at this level. Future work might need to include more malleable factors (e.g., motivation), as well as broader views of achievement (e.g., course grades). 

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4. Comorbid learning difficulties in reading and mathematics: The role of intelligence and in-class attentive behavior

   https://doi.org/doi/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.572099  

   Geary, D. C. (October 2020, Frontiers in psychology)

   null (Ed.)

   The goal was to identify the domain-general cognitive abilities and academic attitudes that are common and unique to reading and mathematics learning difficulties that in turn will have implications for intervention development. Across seventh and eighth grade, 315 (155 boys) adolescents (M age = 12.75 years) were administered intelligence, verbal short-term and working memory, and visuospatial memory, attention, and ability measures, along with measures of English and mathematics attitudes and mathematics anxiety. Teachers reported on students’ in-class attentive behavior. A combination of Bayesian and multi-level models revealed that intelligence and in-class attentive behavior were common predictors of reading accuracy, reading fluency, and mathematics achievement. Verbal short-term memory was more critical for reading accuracy and fluency, whereas spatial ability and mathematics self-efficacy were more critical for mathematics achievement. The combination of intelligence and in-class attentive behavior discriminated typically-achieving students from students with comorbid (D = 2.44) or mathematics (D = 1.59) learning difficulties, whereas intelligence, visuospatial attention, and verbal short-term memory discriminated typically-achieving students from students with reading disability (D = 1.08). The combination of in-class attentive behavior, verbal short-term memory, and mathematics self-efficacy discriminated students with mathematics difficulties from their peers with reading difficulties (D = 1.16). Given the consistent importance of in-class attentive behavior, we conducted post hoc follow-up analyses. The results suggested that students with poor in-class attentive behavior were disengaging from academic learning which in turn contributed to their risk of learning difficulties. 

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5. Are students’ math and verbal motivational beliefs malleable? The role of praise in dimensional comparisons

   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2024.106100  

   Ren, Kexin; Grenell, Amanda; Gunderson, Elizabeth A (January 2025, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology)

   To determine their academic strengths and weaknesses, students compare their own performance across domains (e.g., math versus English), a process referred to as dimensional comparisons. For example, individuals’ higher-scoring English performance may negatively affect their math motivational beliefs (competence self-concepts and intrinsic values), resulting in favoritism toward English. Students’ motivation can also be affected by praise from adults. However, praise in one domain (e.g., English) may have unexpected negative effects on motivation in the contrasting domain (e.g., math) through dimensional comparisons. We experimentally investigated the impact of receiving praise in only one domain on students’ domain-specific motivational beliefs. We hypothesized that students would have higher motivational beliefs in the praised domain and lower motivational beliefs in the non-praised domain compared to students who received no praise. Seventh-to-9th-graders (10-15-year-olds; N=108; 46 girls; 92 living in the U.S.; 84.8% White, 2.9% Asian or Asian American, 2.9% Black or African American, 9.5% multiple races; parents’ education range: 13-18 years) showed heightened verbal competence self-concepts after receiving praise on either verbal or math performance. College students (first-to-5th-year; N=109; 89 females; 105 living in the U.S.; 58.9% White, 21.5% Asian or Asian American, 10.3% Black or African American, 5.6% multiple races, 3.7% other races) showed higher verbal intrinsic values after receiving praise on verbal performance. Results supported positive effects of praise in the verbal domain only and were inconsistent with the predicted negative effects on the non-praised domain. We suggest that students’ verbal motivational beliefs are more malleable than math beliefs when receiving disproportionate praise. 

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