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Gender is one of the central categories organizing children’s social world. Clear patterns of gender development have been well-documented among cisgender children (i.e., children who identify as a gender that is typically associated with their sex assigned at birth). We present a comprehensive study of gender development (e.g., gender identity and gender expression) in a cohort of 3- to 12-y-old transgender children (n = 317) who, in early childhood, are identifying and living as a gender different from their assigned sex. Four primary findings emerged. First, transgender children strongly identify as members of their current gender group and show gender-typed preferences and behaviors that are strongly associated with their current gender, not the gender typically associated with their sex assigned at birth. Second, transgender children’s gender identity (i.e., the gender they feel they are) and gender-typed preferences generally did not differ from 2 comparison groups: cisgender siblings (n = 189) and cisgender controls (n = 316). Third, transgender and cisgender children’s patterns of gender development showed coherence across measures. Finally, we observed minimal or no differences in gender identity or preferences as a function of how long transgender children had lived as their current gender. Our findings suggest that early sex assignment and parental rearing based on that sex assignment do not always define how a child identifies or expresses gender later.
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Unequal Transition to Adulthood: Widening Disparities in the Age at First Union, Sex and Birth in Many Low- and Middle-Income Countries
Research on the timing of events during transition to adulthood, such as first union, sex and, birth in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) focused predominately on measures of central tendency, notably median or mean ages. In this report, we adopt a different perspective on this topic by examining disparities in the timing of these events in 46 LMICs, spanning four decades. Using Demographic and Health Surveys, we estimate ages at which 25%, 50%, and 75% of women have first union, birth, and sex. We compute interquartile ranges to measure within-country variation and disparities in the timing of sexual initiation and family formation. Variation in the timing of first union, birth, and sex generally increases as the median ages at these events increase. Disparities in the timing of first union and birth grew in West Africa and Latin America, and women who experience these events relatively early increasingly lag behind women who experience them relatively late. Documenting trends in measures of central tendency is insufficient to capture complexity of ongoing changes because they mask growing disparities in the timing of family formation across many LMICs. These results are important for assessing progress towards achievement of SDGs related to reduction of early marriages and pregnancies and highlight a need for more holistic approaches to measuring timing of family formation.
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- Award ID(s):
- 1729185
- PAR ID:
- 10340613
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- Studies in family planning
- ISSN:
- 0039-3665
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
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