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1. Cervical air sac oxygen profiles in diving emperor penguins: parabronchial ventilation and the respiratory oxygen store

   https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.230219  

   Williams, Cassondra L. ; Czapanskiy, Max F. ; John, Jason S. ; Leger, Judy St. ; Scadeng, Miriam ; Ponganis, Paul J. ( January 2021 , Journal of Experimental Biology)

   null (Ed.)

   Some marine birds and mammals can perform dives of extraordinary duration and depth. Such dive performance is dependent on many factors, including total body oxygen (O2) stores. For diving penguins, the respiratory system (air sacs and lungs) constitutes 30-50% of the total body O2 store. To better understand the role and mechanism of parabronchial ventilation and O2 utilization in penguins both on the surface and during the dive, we examined air sac partial pressures of O2 (PO2) in emperor penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri) equipped with backpack PO2 recorders. Cervical air sac PO2s at rest were lower than in other birds, while the cervical air sac to posterior thoracic air sac PO2 difference was larger. Pre-dive cervical air sac PO2s were often greater than those at rest, but had a wide range and were not significantly different from those at rest. The maximum respiratory O2 store and total body O2 stores calculated with representative anterior and posterior air sac PO2 data did not differ from prior estimates. The mean calculated anterior air sac O2 depletion rate for dives up to 11 min was approximately one-tenth that of the posterior air sacs. Low cervical air sac PO2s at rest may be secondary to a low ratio of parabronchial ventilation to parabronchial blood O2 extraction. During dives, overlap of simultaneously recorded cervical and posterior thoracic air sac PO2 profiles supported the concept of maintenance of parabronchial ventilation during a dive by air movement through the lungs. 

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2. High-resolution recording of foraging behaviour over multiple annual cycles shows decline in old Adélie penguins' performance

   https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.2480  

   Lescroël, Amélie ; Schmidt, Annie ; Ainley, David G. ; Dugger, Katie M. ; Elrod, Megan ; Jongsomjit, Dennis ; Morandini, Virginia ; Winquist, Suzanne ; Ballard, Grant ( April 2023 , Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences)

   Age-related variation in foraging performance can result from both within-individual change and selection processes. These mechanisms can only be disentangled by using logistically challenging long-term, longitudinal studies. Coupling a long-term demographic data set with high-temporal-resolution tracking of 18 Adélie penguins ( Pygoscelis adeliae , age 4–15 yrs old) over three consecutive annual cycles, we examined how foraging behaviour changed within individuals of different age classes. Evidence indicated within-individual improvement in young and middle-age classes, but a significant decrease in foraging dive frequency within old individuals, associated with a decrease in the dive descent rate. Decreases in foraging performance occurred at a later age (from 12–15 yrs old to 15–18 yrs old) than the onset of senescence predicted for this species (9–11 yrs old). Foraging dive frequency was most affected by the interaction between breeding status and annual life-cycle periods, with frequency being highest during returning migration and breeding season and was highest overall for successful breeders during the chick-rearing period. Females performed more foraging dives per hour than males. This longitudinal, full annual cycle study allowed us to shed light on the changes in foraging performance occurring among individuals of different age classes and highlighted the complex interactions among drivers of individual foraging behaviour. 

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3. Plasticity in the morphometrics and movements of an Antarctic apex predator, the leopard seal

   https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.976019  

   Kienle, Sarah S. ; Goebel, Michael E. ; LaBrecque, Erin ; Borras-Chavez, Renato ; Trumble, Stephen J. ; Kanatous, Shane B. ; Crocker, Daniel E. ; Costa, Daniel P. ( August 2022 , Frontiers in Marine Science)

   Animals that display plasticity in behavioral, ecological, and morphological traits are better poised to cope with environmental disturbances. Here, we examined individual plasticity and intraspecific variation in the morphometrics, movement patterns, and dive behavior of an enigmatic apex predator, the leopard seal ( Hydrurga leptonyx ). Satellite/GPS tags and time-depth recorders were deployed on 22 leopard seals off the Western Antarctic Peninsula. Adult female leopard seals were significantly larger (454±59 kg) and longer (302±11 cm) than adult males (302±22 kg, 276±11 cm). As females were 50% larger than their male counterparts, leopard seals are therefore one of the most extreme examples of female-biased sexual size dimorphism in marine mammals. Female leopard seals also spent more time hauled-out on land and ice than males. In the austral spring/summer, three adult female leopard seals hauled-out on ice for 10+ days, which likely represent the first satellite tracks of parturition and lactation for the species. While we found sex-based differences in morphometrics and haul-out durations, other variables, including maximum distance traveled and dive parameters, did not vary by sex. Regardless of sex, some leopard seals remained in near-shore habitats, traveling less than 50 kilometers, while other leopard seals traveled up to 1,700 kilometers away from the tagging location. Overall, leopard seals were short (3.0±0.7 min) and shallow (29±8 m) divers. However, within this general pattern, some individual leopard seals primarily used short, shallow dives, while others switched between short, shallow dives and long, deep dives. We also recorded the single deepest and longest dive made by any leopard seal—1, 256 meters for 25 minutes. Together, our results showcased high plasticity among leopard seals tagged in a single location. These flexible behaviors and traits may offer leopard seals, an ice-associated apex predator, resilience to the rapidly changing Southern Ocean. 

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4. Clustering and classification of vertical movement profiles for ecological inference of behavior

   https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.4384  

   Barbour, Nicole ; Robillard, Alexander J. ; Shillinger, George L. ; Lyubchich, Vyacheslav ; Secor, David H. ; Fagan, William F. ; Bailey, Helen ( January 2023 , Ecosphere)

   Vertical movements can expose individuals to rapid changes in physical and trophic environments—for aquatic fauna, dive profiles from biotelemetry data can be used to quantify and categorize vertical movements. Inferences on classes of vertical movement profiles typically rely on subjective summaries of parameters or statistical clustering techniques that utilize Euclidean matching of vertical movement profiles with vertical observation points. These approaches are prone to subjectivity, error, and bias. We used machine learning approaches on a large dataset of vertical time series (N = 28,217 dives) for 31 post‐nesting leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea). We applied dynamic time warp (DTW) clustering to group vertical movement (dive) time series by their metrics (depth and duration) into an optimal number of clusters. We then identified environmental covariates associated with each cluster using a generalized additive mixed‐effects model (GAMM). A convolutional neural network (CNN) model, trained on standard dive shape types from the literature, was used to classify dives within each DTW cluster by their shape. Two clusters were identified with the DTW approach—these varied in their spatial and temporal distributions, with dependence on environmental covariates, sea surface temperature, bathymetry, sea surface height anomaly, and time‐lagged surface chlorophyllaconcentrations. CNN classification accuracy of the five standard dive profiles was 95%. Subsequent analyses revealed that the two clusters differed in their composition of standard dive shapes, with each cluster dominated by shapes indicative of distinct behaviors (pelagic foraging and exploration, respectively). The use of these two machine learning approaches allowed for discrete behaviors to be identified from vertical time series data, first by clustering vertical movements by their movement metrics (DTW) and second by classifying dive profiles within each cluster by their shapes (CNN). Statistical inference for the identified clusters found distinct relationships with environmental covariates, supporting hypotheses of vertical niche switching and vertically structured foraging behavior. This approach could be similarly applied to the time series of other animals utilizing the vertical dimension in their movements, including aerial, arboreal, and other aquatic species, to efficiently identify different movement behaviors and inform habitat models.

    

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5. Dive heart rate in harbour porpoises is influenced by exercise and expectations

   https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.168740  

   McDonald, Birgitte I. ; Johnson, Mark ; Madsen, Peter T. ( January 2018 , Journal of Experimental Biology)

   null (Ed.)

   The dive response, a decrease in heart rate (ƒH) and peripheral vasoconstriction, is the key mechanism allowing breath-hold divers to perform long duration dives. This pronounced cardiovascular response to diving has been investigated intensely in pinnipeds, but comparatively little is known for cetaceans, in particular in ecologically relevant settings. Here we studied the dive ƒH response in one the smallest cetaceans, the harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena). We used a novel multi-sensor data logger to record dive behaviour, ƒH, ventilations and feeding events in three trained porpoises, providing the first evaluation of cetacean ƒH regulation while performing a variety of natural behaviours, including prey capture. We predicted that tagged harbour porpoises would exhibit a decrease in ƒH in all dives, but the degree of bradycardia would be influenced by dive duration and activity, i.e., the dive ƒH response will be exercise modulated. In all dives, ƒH decreased compared to surface rates by at least 50% (mean maximum surface=173 beats min−1, mean minimum dive=50 beats min−1); however, dive ƒH was approximately 10 beats min−1 higher in active dives due to a slower decrease in ƒH and more variable ƒH during pursuit of prey. We show that porpoises exhibit the typical breath-hold diver bradycardia during aerobic dives and that the heart rate response is modulated by exercise and dive duration; however, other variables such as expectations and individual differences are equally important in determining diving heart rate. 

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