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1. Measuring Racial Discrimination in Algorithms

   https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20211080  

   Arnold, David; Dobbie, Will; Hull, Peter (May 2021, AEA Papers and Proceedings)

   Algorithmic decision-making can lead to discrimination against legally protected groups, but measuring such discrimination is often hampered by a fundamental selection challenge. We develop new quasi-experimental tools to overcome this challenge and measure algorithmic discrimination in pretrial bail decisions. We show that the selection challenge reduces to the challenge of measuring four moments, which can be estimated by extrapolating quasi-experimental variation across as-good-as-randomly assigned decision-makers. Estimates from New York City show that both a sophisticated machine learning algorithm and a simpler regression model discriminate against Black defendants even though defendant race and ethnicity are not included in the training data. 

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2. Protect US racial affinity groups

   https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adq4733  

   Chaudhary, V Bala; Kim, Sora; Medina, Mónica; Srivastava, Diane S; Traylor-Knowles, Nikki; Brito-Millan, Marlene; Camargo-Cely, Alejandra; Chatterjee, Snehanjana; Chen, Nancy; Chen, Yolanda H; et al (February 2025, Science)
3. Beliefs about social norms and racial inequalities predict variation in the early development of racial bias

   https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13170  

   Rizzo, Michael T.; Green, Emily R.; Dunham, Yarrow; Bruneau, Emile; Rhodes, Marjorie (January 2021, Developmental science)
4. The Misperception of Racial Economic Inequality

   https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619863049  

   Kraus, Michael W.; Onyeador, Ivuoma N.; Daumeyer, Natalie M.; Rucker, Julian M.; Richeson, Jennifer A. (November 2019, Perspectives on Psychological Science)

   null (Ed.)

   Racial economic inequality is a foundational feature of the United States, yet many Americans appear oblivious to it. In the present work we consider the psychology underlying this collective willful ignorance. Drawing on prior research and new evidence from a nationally representative sample of adults ( N = 1,008), we offer compelling evidence that Americans vastly underestimate racial economic inequality, especially the racial wealth gap. In particular, respondents thought that the Black–White wealth gap was smaller, by around 40 percentage points in 1963 and around 80 percentage points in 2016, than its actual size. We then consider the motivational, cognitive, and structural factors that are likely to contribute to these misperceptions and suggest directions for future research to test these ideas. Importantly, we highlight the implications of our collective ignorance of racial economic inequality and the challenge of creating greater accuracy in perceptions of these racial economic disparities, as well as outline the steps policymakers might take to create messages on this topic that effectively promote equity-enhancing policies. We close with an appeal to psychological science to at least consider, if not center, the racial patterning of these profound economic gaps. 

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5. Intergenerational Wealth Mobility and Racial Inequality

   https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023119831799  

   Pfeffer, Fabian T.; Killewald, Alexandra (January 2019, Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World)

   The black-white gap in household wealth is large and well documented. Here, we visualize how this racial wealth gap persists across generations. Animating the flow of individuals between the relative wealth position of parents and their adult children, we show that the disadvantage of black families is a consequence both of wealth inequality in prior generations and race differences in the transmission of wealth positions across generations: Black children both have less wealthy parents on average and are far more likely to be downwardly mobile in household wealth. By displaying intergenerational movements between parental and offspring wealth quintiles, we underline how intergenerational fluctuation coexists with the maintenance of a severely racialized wealth structure. 

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