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Objective Math and reading are related at the disability level and along the continuum of skill (Cirino, 2022). Cognitive correlates of math and reading in children are well-known separately, with a recent focus on the reason for their overlap. However, less is known about these issues in community college (CC) students despite more than half of post-secondary education occurring at this level. Here we assess cognitive predictors of math and reading (language, working memory, processing speed, nonverbal reasoning, attention) in CC students, outcome overlap, and the extent that predictors account for overlap. We expect all predictors to relate to achievement, with language and working memory as the strongest predictors, and accounting for the most overlap. We also expect more overlap and stronger prediction for complex outcomes (reading comprehension and math applications) relative to foundational skills (word reading and computations). Participants and Methods Participants were 94 CC students enrolled in their first math class. Approximately half the students were taking developmental coursework. Participants were administered four KTEA-3 measures: Letter-Word Reading, Reading Comprehension, Math Computation, and Math Concepts and Application. Language consisted of Vocabulary (K-BIT-2), and Elision and Rapid Naming subtests of the CTOPP-2. Working memory was assessed with two complex span measures (Symmetry Span and Reading Span). Processing speed was measured with the WAIS-IV, and nonverbal reasoning with the K-BIT-2. Attention was assessed via a researcher-designed continuous performance task and a self-rating scale. Multiple regression assessed cognitive prediction for each achievement measure; and partial correlation evaluated overlap. Results For computations, all predictors accounted for R2=53% variance; nonverbal reasoning and elision were unique predictors (p<.05). For math applications, R2=58%, with unique prediction for nonverbal reasoning, vocabulary, elision, and symmetry span. For word reading, R2=50%, with unique prediction for vocabulary, elision, and reading span. Finally, for reading comprehension, R2=47%, with unique prediction for vocabulary and nonverbal reasoning. Regarding overlap, computations and word reading correlated r=.50, and math applications and reading comprehension r=.57, which is higher than a recent meta-analysis (Unal et al., 2023). Language was the strongest contributor of overlap; these variables reduced the correlation for foundational achievement by 50%, and for complex achievement, by 32%. Other domains accounted for little overlap, despite significant zero-order correlations. Substantive results were generally similar when covariates were considered. Conclusions Individual prediction was dominated by language, nonverbal reasoning, and working memory variables. Math and reading performances were strongly related, and language was the strongest predictor of this overlap, which is only partially consistent with extant literature but adds context and generalization for CC students. Attention and processing speed were only weakly related to performance, which may reflect the overlearned nature of these skills at this level. Future work might need to include more malleable factors (e.g., motivation), as well as broader views of achievement (e.g., course grades).
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The relationship between phonological processing and arithmetic in children with learning disabilities
Phonological processing skills have not only been shown to be important for reading skills, but also for arithmetic skills. Specifically, previous research in typically devel- oping children has suggested that phonological processing skills may be more closely related to arithmetic problems that are solved through fact retrieval (e.g., remembering the solution from memory) than procedural computation (e.g., counting). However, the relationship between phonological processing and arithmetic in children with learning disabilities (LDs) has not been investigated. Yet, understanding these relationships in children with LDs is especially important because it can help elucidate the cognitive underpinnings of math difficulties, explain why reading and math disabilities frequently co-occur, and provide information on which cognitive skills to target for interventions. In 63 children with LDs, we examined the relationship between different phonological processing skills (phonemic awareness, phonological memory, and rapid serial naming) and arithmetic. We distinguished between arithmetic problems that tend to be solved with fact retrieval versus procedural computation to determine whether phonological processing skills are differentially related to these two arithmetic processes. We found that phonemic awareness, but not phonological memory or rapid serial naming, was related to arithmetic fact retrieval. We also found no association between any phono- logical processing skills and procedural computation. These results converge with prior research in typically developing children and suggest that phonemic awareness is also related to arithmetic fact retrieval in children with LD. These results raise the possibil- ity that phonemic awareness training might improve both reading and arithmetic fact retrieval skills.
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- Award ID(s):
- 1743521
- PAR ID:
- 10395795
- Editor(s):
- Bortfeld, H.
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- Developmental Science
- ISSN:
- 1363-755X
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
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- Free Publicly Accessible Full Text
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Accepted Manuscript
- Journal Article:
- https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13294
