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1. Role of Temperature Gradient and Soil Thermal Properties on Frost Heave

   https://doi.org/10.1177/03611981221147261  

   Sadiq, Md Fyaz; Naqvi, Mohammad Wasif; Cetin, Bora; Daniels, John (July 2023, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board)

   In cold regions, the soil temperature gradient and depth of frost penetration can significantly affect roadway performance because of frost heave and thaw settlement of the subgrade soils. The severity of the damage depends on the soil index properties, temperature, and availability of water. While nominal expansion occurs with the phase change from pore water to ice, heaving is derived primarily from a continuous flow of water from the vadose zone to growing ice lenses. The temperature gradient within the soil influences water migration toward the freezing front, where ice nucleates, coalesces into lenses, and grows. This study evaluates the frost heave potential of frost-susceptible soils from Iowa (IA-PC) and North Carolina (NC-BO) under different temperature gradients. One-dimensional frost heave tests were conducted with a free water supply under three different temperature gradients of 0.26°C/cm, 0.52°C/cm, and 0.78°C/cm. Time-dependent measurements of frost penetration, water intake, and frost heave were carried out. Results of the study suggested that frost heave and water intake are functions of the temperature gradient within the soil. A lower temperature gradient of 0.26°C/cm leads to the maximum total heave of 18.28 mm (IA-PC) and 38.27 mm (NC-BO) for extended periods of freezing. The maximum frost penetration rate of 16.47 mm/hour was observed for a higher temperature gradient of 0.78°C/cm and soil with higher thermal diffusivity of 0.684 mm 2 /s. The results of this study can be used to validate numerical models and develop engineered solutions that prevent frost damage. 

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2. Microstructure-Based Random Finite Element Method Simulation of Frost Heave: Theory and Implementation

   https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198118798721  

   Dong, Shaoyang; Yu, Xiong (December 2018, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board)

   Frost heave can cause serious damage to civil infrastructure. For example, interactions of soil and water pipes under frozen conditions have been found to significantly accelerate pipe fracture. Frost heave may cause the retaining walls along highways to crack and even fail in cold climates. This paper describes a holistic model to simulate the temperature, stress, and deformation in frozen soil and implement a model to simulate frost heave and stress on water pipelines. The frozen soil behaviors are based on a microstructure-based random finite element model, which holistically describes the mechanical behaviors of soils subjected to freezing conditions. The new model is able to simulate bulk behaviors by considering the microstructure of soils. The soil is phase coded and therefore the simulation model only needs the corresponding parameters of individual phases. This significantly simplifies obtaining the necessary parameters for the model. The capability of the model in simulating the temperature distribution and volume change are first validated with laboratory scale experiments. Coupled thermal-mechanical processes are introduced to describe the soil responses subjected to sub-zero temperature on the ground surface. This subsequently changes the interaction modes between ground and water pipes and leads to increase of stresses on the water pipes. The effects of cracks along a water pipe further cause stress concentration, which jeopardizes the pipe’s performance and leads to failure. The combined effects of freezing ground and traffic load are further evaluated with the model. 

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3. Soil microbial legacies influence freeze–thaw responses of soil

   https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.14273  

   Pastore, Melissa A; Classen, Aimée T; English, Marie E; Frey, Serita D; Knorr, Melissa A; Rand, Karin; Adair, E Carol (April 2023, Functional Ecology)

   Abstract Warmer winters with less snowfall are increasing the frequency of soil freeze–thaw cycles across temperate regions. Soil microbial responses to freeze–thaw cycles vary and some of this variation may be explained by microbial conditioning to prior winter conditions, yet such linkages remain largely unexplored. We investigated how differences in temperature history influenced microbial community composition and activity in response to freeze–thaw cycles.We collected soil microbial communities that developed under colder (high elevation) and warmer (low elevation) temperature regimes in spruce‐fir forests, then added each of these soil microbial communities to a sterile bulk‐soil in a laboratory microcosm experiment. The inoculated high‐elevation cold and low‐elevation warm microcosms were subjected to diurnal freeze–thaw cycles or constant above‐freezing temperature for 9 days. Then, all microcosms were subjected to a 7‐day above‐freezing recovery period.Overall, we found that the high‐elevation cold community had, relative to the low‐elevation warm community, a smaller reduction in microbial respiration (CO₂flux) during freeze–thaw cycles. Further, the high‐elevation cold community, on average, experienced lower freeze–thaw‐induced bacterial mortality than the warm community and may have partly acclimated to freeze–thaw cycles via increased lipid membrane fluidity. Respiration of both microbial communities quickly recovered following the end of the freeze–thaw treatment period and there were no changes in soil extractable carbon or nitrogen.Our results provide evidence that past soil temperature conditions may influence the responses of soil microbial communities to freeze–thaw cycles. The microbial community that developed under a colder temperature regime was more tolerant of freeze–thaw cycles than the community that developed under a warmer temperature regime, although both communities displayed some level of resilience. Taken together, our data suggest that microbial communities conditioned to less extreme winter soil temperatures may be most vulnerable to rapid changes in freeze–thaw regimes as winters warm, but they also may be able to quickly recover if mortality is low. Read the freePlain Language Summaryfor this article on the Journal blog. 

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4. Assessing the influence of soil freeze–thaw cycles on catchment water storage–flux–age interactions using a tracer-aided ecohydrological model

   https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-3319-2019  

   Smith, Aaron; Tetzlaff, Doerthe; Laudon, Hjalmar; Maneta, Marco; Soulsby, Chris (January 2019, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences)

   Abstract. Ecohydrological models are powerful tools to quantify the effects that independent fluxes may have on catchment storage dynamics. Here, we adapted the tracer-aided ecohydrological model, EcH₂O-iso, for cold regions with the explicit conceptualization of dynamic soil freeze–thaw processes. We tested the model at the data-rich Krycklan site in northern Sweden with multi-criterion calibration using discharge, stream isotopes and soil moisture in three nested catchments. We utilized the model's incorporation of ecohydrological partitioning to evaluate the effect of soil frost on evaporation and transpiration water ages, and thereby the age of source waters. The simulation of stream discharge, isotopes, and soil moisture variability captured the seasonal dynamics at all three stream sites and both soil sites, with notable reductions in discharge and soil moisture during the winter months due to the development of the frost front. Stream isotope simulations reproduced the response to the isotopically depleted pulse of spring snowmelt. The soil frost dynamics adequately captured the spatial differences in the freezing front throughout the winter period, despite no direct calibration of soil frost to measured soil temperature. The simulated soil frost indicated a maximum freeze depth of 0.25 m below forest vegetation. Water ages of evaporation and transpiration reflect the influence of snowmelt inputs, with a high proclivity of old water (pre-winter storage) at the beginning of the growing season and a mix of snowmelt and precipitation (young water) toward the end of the summer. Soil frost had an early season influence of the transpiration water ages, with water pre-dating the snowpack mainly sustaining vegetation at the start of the growing season. Given the long-term expected change in the energy balance of northern climates, the approach presented provides a framework for quantifying the interactions of ecohydrological fluxes and waters stored in the soil and understanding how these may be impacted in future. 

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5. Psychrophiles to control ice-water phase changes in frost-susceptible soils

   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-51060-w  

   Rahman, Rashed; Bheemasetti, Tejo V.; Govil, Tanvi; Sani, Rajesh (January 2024, Scientific Reports)

   Abstract The phase changes of soil water or porous media have a crucial influence on the performance of natural and man-made infrastructures in cold regions. While various methods have been explored to address the impacts of frost-action arising from these phase changes, conventional approaches often rely on chemicals, mechanical techniques, and the reuse of waste materials, which often exhibit certain limitations and environmental concerns. In contrast, certain organisms produce ice-binding proteins (IBPs) or antifreeze proteins (AFPs) to adapt to low temperatures, which can inhibit ice crystal growth by lowering the freezing point and preventing ice crystallization without the need for external intervention. This study explores the potential of three psychrophilic microbes:Sporosarcina psychrophile,Sporosarcina globispora, andPolaromonas hydrogenivorans, to induce non-equilibrium freezing point depression and thermal hysteresis in order to control ice lens growth in frost-susceptible soils. We hypothesize that the AFPs produced by psychrophiles will alter the phase changes of porous media in frost-susceptible soils. The growth profiles of the microbes, the concentration of released proteins in the extracellular solution, and the thermal properties of the protein-mixed soils are monitored at an interval of three days. The controlled soil showed a freezing point of − 4.59 °C and thermal hysteresis of 4.62 °C, whereas protein-treated soil showed a maximum freezing point depression of − 8.54 °C and thermal hysteresis of 7.71 °C. Interestingly, except for the controlled sample, all the protein-treated soil samples were thawed at a negative temperature (minimum recorded at − 0.85 °C). Further analysis showed that the treated soils compared to porous media mixed soil freeze (1.25 °C vs. 0.51 °C) and thaw (2.75 °C vs. 1.72 °C) at extensive temperature gap. This freezing and thawing temperature gap is the temperature difference between the beginning of ice core formation and completed frozen, and the beginning of ice core thawing and completed thawed for the treated soil samples selected from different incubation days. Overall, this study presents a novel bio-mediated approach using psychrophilic microbes to control ice formation in frost-susceptible soils. 

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