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Inclusive classrooms aim to promote the social participation of children with learning difficulties (LD). Research shows that children without LD view it as fair to include their peers with LD into the classroom community. Still, children with LD often face social exclusion. This study addressed this gap by investigating how children reason about challenging LD-based exclusion. One objective was to document the distinction between children’s personal goals and their expectations of their peers’ goals when confronting exclusionary behavior toward a peer with LD. Swiss elementary school children (N= 349, 7–13 years, 48% female) were introduced to a scenario about a classmate with LD who was excluded from a group task. They reasoned whether and why they would intervene and what reactions they expected from the group and the perpetrator. The results showed that the vast majority of childrenpersonallyintended to intervene, primarily for moral reasons. However, children’s expectations about their peers were different. They expected a wide range of responses, including negative group dynamics and LD-stereotypes. Higher perceptions of inclusive classroom norms were related to fewer expectations of negative group dynamics. Moreover, older children’s reasoning was more differentiated and included multiple concerns simultaneously. These findings inform strategies for creating inclusive classrooms.
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Children’s Perspectives on Fairness and Inclusivity in the Classroom
Abstract School represents an important context for children’s social, moral, and identity development. Research indicates that supportive teacher-student relationships are significantly related to positive student academic achievement. Unfortunately, teacher bias as well as peer exclusion based on group identity (gender, race, ethnicity, and nationality) pervade many school contexts. The presence of these biases in the classroom is negatively related to students’ academic development, especially for children who are minoritized and marginalized. Very little research has connected teacher bias and children’s reasoning about bias and inequalities in the classroom context. The classroom is a complex environment in which to examine children’s social and moral reasoning about bias, given teachers’ position of authority which often includes power, status, and prestige. We propose that understanding both teacher bias and peer intergroup exclusion are essential for promoting more fair classrooms. This paper reviews foundational theory as well as the social reasoning developmental model as a framework for studying how children think about fairness and bias in the classroom context. We then discuss current research on children’s social-cognitive and moral capacities, particularly in the contexts of societal inequality and social inclusion or exclusion. Finally, this article proposes new directions for research to promote fairness and inclusivity in schools and suggests how these new lines of research might inform school-based interventions.
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- Award ID(s):
- 1728918
- PAR ID:
- 10437463
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- The Spanish Journal of Psychology
- Volume:
- 25
- ISSN:
- 1138-7416
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
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BackgroundWhile research has documented negative social and academic consequences that occur when students experience peer exclusion, few studies have been conducted to investigate teachers’ evaluations of peer exclusion. AimsThis study investigated whether ethnic and gender biases enter teachers’ evaluations of classroom peer exclusion that met criteria for bullying. SampleTeachers (N = 740; 77% female) of early and middle adolescents participated in the study. Participants were recruited from 118 elementary and secondary schools across the Czech Republic. MethodsUsing a between‐subjects design, teachers evaluated a scenario of classroom peer exclusion initiated by majority ethnic (Czech) students. The scenarios varied contextual characteristics: target’s ethnicity (majority Czech vs. minority Arab), target’s gender, and excluders’ gender. ResultsAnalyses revealed several subtle contextual effects. Although teachers viewed exclusion as having a more negative impact for the fair treatment of Arab targets than for Czech targets, their reasoning about the wrongfulness of such exclusion was less focused on the moral concerns about fairness for Arab than for Czech targets. In contrast to girl targets, teachers were less concerned about the harmful impact on exclusion for boy targets when considering intervention. Excluders’ gender had significant interactions with the target’s gender on reasoning about wrongfulness of exclusion and the target’s ethnicity for viewing exclusion as impairing the target’s academic engagement. ConclusionsThe findings of subtle ethnic and gender biases underscore the need for research on teacher perspectives on peer exclusion and for training teachers how to address peer exclusion in the classroom across various contexts.more » « less
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Developmental psychology researchers who investigate the multifaceted nature of prejudice, shown within everyday peer interactions, emphasize the importance of creating inclusive environments for children where equity and justice are promoted. This article uses the Social Reasoning Developmental (SRD) model to explore how children and adolescents reason about social inclusion and exclusion, drawing on moral, social group, and psychological considerations. The role of bystanders in challenging social exclusion is highlighted, with a focus on promoting proactive bystander intervention to create inclusive environments. This review identifies age, group identity, group norms, intergroup contact, empathy, and theory of mind as key influences on children's and adolescents’ bystander reactions. It emphasizes that interventions promoting inclusive peer and school norms, confidence in intergroup contact, empathy, and social perspective-taking can foster inclusive environments and empower bystander action that challenges intergroup social exclusion.more » « less
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Abstract This study examined how children’s moral reasoning in response to intergroup exclusion scenarios relates to inclusive attitudes and behaviors. A sample of 528 students (Mage= 9.19,SD = 0.90; 264 girls) in third through fifth grade participated in theDeveloping Inclusive Youth(DIY) program, which provided structured opportunities for moral reasoning through varied intergroup scenarios and peer discussions. Results showed that more frequent use of moral reasoning predicted greater inclusivity across multiple measures. Children who engaged in higher levels of moral reasoning demonstrated more negative evaluations of exclusion, greater empathy toward peers from multiple racial groups, and a stronger desire to play with those peers. However, moral reasoning was not significantly associated with expectations for inclusion or with attitudes toward boys or girls. No significant interactions emerged between moral reasoning and participant demographics (race, gender, grade), suggesting broadly applicable effects. These findings highlight moral reasoning as a key mechanism for promoting inclusive orientations in childhood, particularly in contexts involving racial diversity. Future research should explore how moral reasoning interacts with other factors, such as empathy, perspective-taking, and group norms, to support inclusivity across social contexts.more » « less
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Reducing prejudice in childhood requires changing group norms that often perpetuate prejudicial attitudes and in-group bias. Research has shown that intergroup contact is one of the most effective means to reduce prejudice. Yet little research has examined whether intergroup contact in the form of class discussions that challenge negative group norms might promote the desire to play with diverse peers. This study tested whether a classroom intervention program, Developing Inclusive Youth, which included experiences of direct and indirect contact, would increase children’s desire for contact with diverse peers and reduce reported experiences of social exclusion. A multisite randomized control trial was implemented with 983 students (502 females; 58.5% White; Mage = 9.64 years) and 48 teachers in 48 third, fourth, and fifth grade classrooms across six schools. Overall, students in the program displayed more positive expectations about play with diverse peers and fewer experiences with social exclusion. Classroom discussions involved challenging group norms that perpetuate same-group preferences. Children’s grade moderated their desire for contact with peers from some but not all social groups. This type of program may be an effective means for increasing positive, inclusive group norms in childhood, as this is a time in development when attitudes and preferences for peer friendships are forming. Increasing positive intergroup norms in the classroom creates academic learning environments that promote healthy child developmentmore » « less
- Free Publicly Accessible Full Text
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Accepted Manuscript1.0
- Journal Article:
- https://doi.org/10.1017/SJP.2022.24
