Title: Trajectories of US parents’ divisions of domestic labor throughout the COVID-19 pandemic
Background: Research on parents’ divisions of domestic labor during the COVID-19 pandemic has focused on average changes in housework and childcare during the pandemic’s first year, limiting our understanding of variation in parents’ experiences as well as the long-term consequences of the pandemic for gender inequality. Objective: This study identifies distinct patterns of change in U.S. parents’ divisions of housework and childcare from Spring 2020 to Fall 2023 and factors associated with changes in parents’ divisions of domestic labor. Methods: We use five waves of survey data (2020-2023) from partnered U.S. parents along with group-based trajectory and fixed effects models to identify longitudinal trajectories of parents’ divisions of housework and childcare and key factors that are associated with these trajectories. Results: Most U.S. parents (75-80%) maintained the same division of domestic labor throughout the pandemic. Nonetheless, one-quarter experienced long-term changes. Parents were equally as likely to transition to a nontraditional division of housework as a traditional one (10%), but were four times more likely to transition to a nontraditional division of childcare as a traditional division (21 vs. 5%). Parents were more likely to shift toward a nontraditional division of domestic labor when mothers worked full-time (and earned more income) and fathers worked from home at least sometimes during the pandemic. Contributions: Overall, results suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic affected the long-term division of domestic labor in only a minority of families. Where change has occurred, however, it has been long-lasting, and in the case of childcare, it has tended to reduce gender inequalities rather than exacerbate them. more »« less
Carlson, Daniel L.; McPherson, Skye; Petts, Richard J.
(, Social Sciences)
Jacobs, Jerry
(Ed.)
During the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, remote work became the new reality for many fathers. Though time availability theory suggests that this newfound flexibility should lead to more domestic labor on the part of fathers, many were skeptical that fathers would step up to shoulder the load at home. Indeed, the findings are decidedly mixed on the association of fathers’ remote work with their performance of housework and childcare. Nonetheless, research has yet to consider how contextual factors, such as fathers’ gender ideologies and mothers’ employment, may condition these associations. Using data from Wave 1 of the Study on U.S. Parents’ Divisions of Labor During COVID-19 (SPDLC), we examine how gender ideology moderates the association between fathers’ remote work and their performance and share of childcare during the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic in both sole-earner and dual-earner families. The results show, for sole-earning fathers and dual-earner fathers with egalitarian gender attitudes, that the frequency of remote work was positively associated with fathers performing more, and a greater share of, childcare during the pandemic. Yet, only dual-earner fathers with egalitarian gender attitudes performed an equal share of childcare in their families. These findings suggest that the pandemic provided structural opportunities for fathers, particularly egalitarian-minded fathers, to be the equally engaged parents they desired.
Petts, Richard J; Carlson, Daniel L; Knoester, Chris
(, Journal of Social Policy)
Paternity leave may promote greater gender equality in domestic labour. Though numerous studies show that paternity leave promotes greater fathers’ involvement in childcare, less is known about whether paternity leave-taking may facilitate fathers’ involvement in other forms of domestic labour such as housework. Using repeated cross-sectional data on different-gender partnered US parents from the Study on Parents’ Divisions of Labor During COVID-19 (SPDLC), this study examines the extent to which paternity leave-taking and length of paternity leave are associated with US fathers’ shares of, and time spent on, housework. Findings suggest that paternity leave-taking is positively associated with fathers’ shares of, and time spent on, housework tasks. Longer paternity leaves are also associated with fathers performing greater shares of housework. Overall, this study indicates that the benefits of paternity leave likely extend to fathers’ greater participation in housework, providing additional support for the belief that increased use of paternity leave may help to promote gender equality in domestic labour.
Carlson, Daniel L.; Petts, Richard J.
(, ICPSR - Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research)
The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically altered family life in the United States. Over the long duration of the pandemic, parents had to adapt to shifting work conditions, virtual schooling, the closure of daycare facilities, and the stress of not only managing households without domestic and care supports but also worrying that family members may contract the novel coronavirus. Reports early in the pandemic suggest that these burdens have fallen disproportionately on mothers, creating concerns about the long-term implications of the pandemic for gender inequality and mothers’ well-being. Nevertheless, less is known about how parents’ engagement in domestic labor and paid work has changed throughout the pandemic and beyond, what factors may be driving these changes, and what the long-term consequences of the pandemic may be for the gendered division of labor and gender inequality more generally. The Study on U.S. Parents’ Divisions of Labor During COVID-19 (SPDLC) collects longitudinal survey data from partnered U.S. parents that can be used to assess changes in parents’ divisions of domestic labor, divisions of paid labor, and well-being throughout and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The goal of SPDLC is to understand both the short-and long-term impacts of the pandemic for the gendered division of labor, work-family issues, and broader patterns of gender inequality. Survey data for this study is collected using Prolifc (www.prolific.co), an opt-in online platform designed to facilitate scientific research. The sample is comprised U.S. adults who were residing with a romantic partner and at least one biological child (at the time of entry into the study). In each survey, parents answer questions about both themselves and their partners. Wave 1 of the SPDLC was conducted in April 2020, and parents who participated in Wave 1 were asked about their division of labor both prior to (i.e., early March 2020) and one month after the pandemic began. Wave 2 of the SPDLC was collected in November 2020. Parents who participated in Wave 1 were invited to participate again in Wave 2, and a new cohort of parents was also recruited to participate in the Wave 2 survey. Wave 3 of SPDLC was collected in October 2021. Parents who participated in either of the first two waves were invited to participate again in Wave 3, and another new cohort of parents was also recruited to participate in the Wave 3 survey. Wave 4 of the SPDLC was collected in October 2022. Parents who participated in either of the first three waves were invited to participate again in Wave 4, and another new cohort of parents was also recruited to participate in the Wave 4 survey. This research design (follow-up survey of panelists and new cross-section of parents at each wave) will continue through 2024, culminating in six waves of data spanning the period from March 2020 through October 2024. An estimated total of approximately 6,500 parents will be surveyed at least once throughout the duration of the study. SPDLC data will be released to the public two years after data is collected; Waves 1-3 are currently publicly available. Wave 4 will be publicly available in October 2024, with subsequent waves becoming available yearly. Data will be available to download in both SPSS (.sav) and Stata (.dta) formats, and the following data files will be available: (1) a data file for each individual wave, which contains responses from all participants in that wave of data collection, (2) a longitudinal panel data file, which contains longitudinal follow-up data from all available waves, and (3) a repeated cross-section data file, which contains the repeated cross-section data (from new respondents at each wave) from all available waves. Codebooks for each survey wave and a detailed user guide describing the data are also available.
Carlson, Daniel L; Petts, Richard J
(, ICPSR - Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research)
The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically altered family life in the United States. Over the long duration of the pandemic, parents had to adapt to shifting work conditions, virtual schooling, the closure of daycare facilities, and the stress of not only managing households without domestic and care supports but also worrying that family members may contract the novel coronavirus. Reports early in the pandemic suggest that these burdens have fallen disproportionately on mothers, creating concerns about the long-term implications of the pandemic for gender inequality and mothers’ well-being. Nevertheless, less is known about how parents’ engagement in domestic labor and paid work has changed throughout the pandemic and beyond, what factors may be driving these changes, and what the long-term consequences of the pandemic may be for the gendered division of labor and gender inequality more generally. The Study on U.S. Parents’ Divisions of Labor During COVID-19 (SPDLC) collects longitudinal survey data from partnered U.S. parents that can be used to assess changes in parents’ divisions of domestic labor, divisions of paid labor, and well-being throughout and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The goal of SPDLC is to understand both the short-and long-term impacts of the pandemic for the gendered division of labor, work-family issues, and broader patterns of gender inequality. Survey data for this study is collected using Prolifc (www.prolific.com), an opt-in online platform designed to facilitate scientific research. The sample is comprised U.S. adults who were residing with a romantic partner and at least one biological child (at the time of entry into the study). In each survey, parents answer questions about both themselves and their partners. Wave 1 of the SPDLC was conducted in April 2020, and parents who participated in Wave 1 were asked about their division of labor both prior to (i.e., early March 2020) and one month after the pandemic began. Wave 2 of the SPDLC was collected in November 2020. Parents who participated in Wave 1 were invited to participate again in Wave 2, and a new cohort of parents was also recruited to participate in the Wave 2 survey. Wave 3 of SPDLC was collected in October 2021. Parents who participated in either of the first two waves were invited to participate again in Wave 3, and another new cohort of parents was also recruited to participate in the Wave 3 survey. Wave 4 of the SPDLC was collected in October 2022. Parents who participated in either of the first three waves were invited to participate again in Wave 4, and another new cohort of parents was also recruited to participate in the Wave 4 survey. Wave 5 of the SPDLC was collected in October 2023. Parents who participated in any of the first four waves were invited to participate again in Wave 5, and another new cohort of parents was also recruited to participate in the Wave 5 survey. This research design (follow-up survey of panelists and new cross-section of parents at each wave) will continue through 2024, culminating in six waves of data spanning the period from March 2020 through October 2024. An estimated total of approximately 6,500 parents will be surveyed at least once throughout the duration of the study. SPDLC data will be released to the public two years after data is collected; Waves 1-4 are currently publicly available. Wave 5 will be publicly available in October 2025, with subsequent waves becoming available yearly. Data will be available to download in both SPSS (.sav) and Stata (.dta) formats, and the following data files will be available: (1) a data file for each individual wave, which contains responses from all participants in that wave of data collection, (2) a longitudinal panel data file, which contains longitudinal follow-up data from all available waves, and (3) a repeated cross-section data file, which contains the repeated cross-section data (from new respondents at each wave) from all available waves. Codebooks for each survey wave and a detailed user guide describing the data are also available.
Petts, Richard_J; Carlson, Daniel_L
(, Society and Mental Health)
Rising domestic burdens for mothers fueled concerns that the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated gender inequalities in well-being. Yet, survey research has not considered whether and how cognitive labor—planning, organizing, and monitoring family needs—contributed to gendered health disparities during the pandemic. Using data from the Study on U.S. Parents’ Divisions of Labor during COVID-19 (SPDLC) and a stress process perspective, we examine the association between cognitive labor and parents’ psychological well-being, and whether this association (1) differs between mothers and fathers and (2) is moderated by employment status and telecommuting. Mothers performed more cognitive labor during the pandemic than fathers, and cognitive labor was negatively associated with mothers’ psychological well-being—particularly for mothers who never or exclusively telecommuted. Mothers’ psychological well-being was higher when fathers did more cognitive labor, especially among mothers who worked outside the home. Overall, cognitive labor appears to be another stressor that contributed to increased gender inequality.
Petts, Richard, and Carlson, Daniel. Trajectories of US parents’ divisions of domestic labor throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. Retrieved from https://par.nsf.gov/biblio/10563608. Demographic Research 51. Web. doi:10.4054/DemRes.2024.51.12.
Petts, Richard, & Carlson, Daniel. Trajectories of US parents’ divisions of domestic labor throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. Demographic Research, 51 (). Retrieved from https://par.nsf.gov/biblio/10563608. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2024.51.12
@article{osti_10563608,
place = {Country unknown/Code not available},
title = {Trajectories of US parents’ divisions of domestic labor throughout the COVID-19 pandemic},
url = {https://par.nsf.gov/biblio/10563608},
DOI = {10.4054/DemRes.2024.51.12},
abstractNote = {Background: Research on parents’ divisions of domestic labor during the COVID-19 pandemic has focused on average changes in housework and childcare during the pandemic’s first year, limiting our understanding of variation in parents’ experiences as well as the long-term consequences of the pandemic for gender inequality. Objective: This study identifies distinct patterns of change in U.S. parents’ divisions of housework and childcare from Spring 2020 to Fall 2023 and factors associated with changes in parents’ divisions of domestic labor. Methods: We use five waves of survey data (2020-2023) from partnered U.S. parents along with group-based trajectory and fixed effects models to identify longitudinal trajectories of parents’ divisions of housework and childcare and key factors that are associated with these trajectories. Results: Most U.S. parents (75-80%) maintained the same division of domestic labor throughout the pandemic. Nonetheless, one-quarter experienced long-term changes. Parents were equally as likely to transition to a nontraditional division of housework as a traditional one (10%), but were four times more likely to transition to a nontraditional division of childcare as a traditional division (21 vs. 5%). Parents were more likely to shift toward a nontraditional division of domestic labor when mothers worked full-time (and earned more income) and fathers worked from home at least sometimes during the pandemic. Contributions: Overall, results suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic affected the long-term division of domestic labor in only a minority of families. Where change has occurred, however, it has been long-lasting, and in the case of childcare, it has tended to reduce gender inequalities rather than exacerbate them.},
journal = {Demographic Research},
volume = {51},
publisher = {Demographic Research},
author = {Petts, Richard and Carlson, Daniel},
}
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