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Objective Historically, numerous studies have supported a male advantage in math. While more recent literature has shown that the gender gap is either decreasing or non-significant, a gender difference remains for higher level math (high school and college) (Hyde et. al. 1990; Casey et. al. 1995). It is known that both cognitive and non-cognitive factors influence math performance. There is little evidence for gender differences in working memory (Miller & Bichsel, 2004), which is a key predictor for mathematics. There is, however, evidence for gender differences in the non-cognitive domain, including math anxiety, with females having higher levels (Miller & Bichsel, 2004; Goetz, et. al. 2013). This study evaluates gender differences in both standardized and everyday math performances, and the way that cognitive and non-cognitive factors impact math. The study is focused on a very understudied group with high levels of math difficulty, namely community college students. We expected to find gender differences in math, and expect these to be in part accounted for by gender differences in strong mathematical predictors, particularly non-cognitive factors. Participants and Methods Participants included 94 community college students enrolled in their first math class (60 female; 34 male). Participants were administered the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement – 3rd edition (KTEA3): Math Computation (MC) and Math Concepts Application (MCA) subtests, as well as an original Everyday Math (EM) measure which assessed their math ability in the context of common uses for math (e.g., financial and health numeracy). Additional measures included math anxiety, self-efficacy, and confidence. Finally, measures of complex span working memory tasks were administered to assess verbal and spatial working memory. Analyses were performed using correlation and regression to examine relationships between the cognitive and non-cognitive variables and standardized and everyday math measures. Results Correlations showed that all cognitive and non-cognitive variables are significantly correlated with all three math measures (all p < .05). There were no significant gender differences for any of the math measures, nor the working memory, or non-cognitive measures. Regression showed that across all three math outcomes, math anxiety and verbal working memory are significantly predictive of math performance. Overall R2 values were significant (range 27% to 37%, all p < .001). Working memory and math anxiety were unique predictors in all three regressions (all p < .05), but other non-cognitive variables such as self-efficacy did not show unique prediction (all p > .05). Conclusions There was no evidence for gender differences on any studied variable. This stands in contrast to prior studies, although few studies have included community college students. On the other hand, both cognitive and non-cognitive factors were complimentary in the prediction of math outcomes, which is consistent with prior work. Among non-cognitive predictors, math anxiety was particularly prominent. This study clarifies prior conflicting work regarding gender differences, and highlights the role of both math anxiety and working memory as relevant for multiple math outcomes.
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This content will become publicly available on February 6, 2026
The role of motivation and working memory on undergraduates’ academic performance
Motivational and cognitive factors are key determinants of academic achievement, but their combined effects are underexplored and show mixed results in the literature (Lu et al., 2011; Weber et al., 2013). Evidence indicates that motivational factors and working memory interact with academic settings. Gareau and Gaudreau (2017) found that working memory moderates the relationship between motivation and academic achievement, whereas Grogan et al. (2022) suggest that motivational factors may enhance working memory performance during academic testing. However, there is no comprehensive framework that integrates these motivational and cognitive elements in an academic context (Peckrun, 2024). The current study investigates whether motivational components, as defined by Pintrich’s theoretical model (1988), independently affect academic performance and whether such effects are moderated by working memory. Hypotheses include that: (1) both working memory and motivational factors would significantly relate to academic performance; and (2) motivation would impact academic performance primarily for individuals with low working memory capacity. Covariates were also considered.
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- Award ID(s):
- 1760760
- PAR ID:
- 10650725
- Publisher / Repository:
- International Neuropsychological Society
- Date Published:
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Location:
- New Orleans, LA
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
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