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The strength of lithospheric plates is a central component of plate tectonics, governed by brittle processes in the shallow portion of the plate and ductile behavior in the deeper portion. We review experimental constraints on ductile deformation of olivine, the main mineral in the upper mantle and thus the lithosphere. Olivine deforms by four major mechanisms: low-temperature plasticity, dislocation creep, dislocation-accommodated grain-boundary sliding (GBS), and diffusion-accommodated grain-boundary sliding (diffusion creep). Deformation in most of the lithosphere is dominated by GBS, except in shear zones—in which diffusion creep dominates—and in the brittle-ductile transition—in which low-temperature plasticity may dominate. We find that observations from naturally deformed rocks are consistent with extrapolation of the experimentally constrained olivine flow laws to geological conditions but that geophysical observations predict a weaker lithosphere. The causes of this discrepancy are unresolved but likely reside in the uncertainty surrounding processes in the brittle-ductile transition, at which the lithosphere is strongest. ▪ Ductile deformation of the lithospheric mantle is constrained by experimental data for olivine. ▪ Olivine deforms by four major mechanisms: low-temperature plasticity, dislocation creep, dislocation-accommodated grain-boundary sliding, and diffusion creep. ▪ Observations of naturally deformed rocks are consistent with extrapolation of olivine flow laws from experimental conditions. ▪ Experiments predict stronger lithosphere than geophysical observations, likely due to gaps in constraints on deformation in the brittle-ductile transition.more » « less
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Abstract Rate‐ and state‐friction (RSF) is an empirical framework that describes the complex velocity‐, time‐, and slip‐dependent phenomena observed during frictional sliding of rocks and gouge in the laboratory. Despite its widespread use in earthquake nucleation and recurrence models, our understanding of RSF, particularly its time‐ and/or slip‐dependence, is still largely empirical, limiting our confidence in extrapolating laboratory behavior to the seismogenic zone. While many microphysical models have been proposed over the past few decades, none have explicitly incorporated the effects of strain hardening, anelasticity, or transient elastoplastic rheology. Here we present a new model of rock friction that incorporates these phenomena directly from the microphysical behavior of lattice dislocations. This model of rock friction exhibits the same logarithmic dependence on sliding velocity (strain rate) as RSF and displays a dependence on the internal backstress caused by long‐range interactions among geometrically necessary dislocations (GNDs). Changes in the backstress (internal stress) evolve exponentially with plastic strain of asperities and are dependent on both the current backstress and previous deformation, which give rise to phenomena consistent with interpretations of the “critical slip distance,” “memory effect,” and “evolution effect” of RSF. The rate dependence of friction in this model is primarily controlled by the evolution of backstress and temperature. We provide several analytical predictions for RSF‐like behavior and the “brittle‐ductile” transition based on microphysical mechanisms and measurable parameters such as the GND density and strain‐dependent hardening modulus.
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Abstract We conducted experiments to study melt migration in crystal‐rich mushes, with application to magma ascent within transcrustal magma reservoirs. Mushes with crystal volume fractions of 0.59–0.83 were prepared by hot‐pressing crushed borosilicate glass mixed with different proportions of quartz sand particles. Each experimental sample comprises stacked disks of mush and soda‐lime glass, a proxy for crystal‐free magma. Samples were subjected to confining pressures of 100–300 MPa and a temperature of 900°C (above the glass transition temperatures of the borosilicate and soda‐lime glasses) for up to 6 h. The bottom and circumference of the mush and soda lime disks experience the confining pressure, but the top of the mush disks is at room pressure, resulting in a pore‐pressure gradient across the mush layer. Following cooling and decompression, we determined the area fraction and morphology of soda‐lime melt that migrated into the mush layer during experiments. Melt fraction is more strongly correlated to crystal fraction than pore‐pressure gradient, increasing with crystal fraction before sharply decreasing as crystal fractions exceed 0.8. This change at 0.8 coincides with the transition from crystals in the mush moving during soda‐lime migration to crystals forming a continuous rigid network. In our experiments, melt migration occurred by viscous fingering, but near the mobile‐to‐rigid transition, melt migration is enhanced by additional capillary action. Our results indicate that magma migration may peak when rigid mushes “unlock” to become mobile. This transition may mark an increase in magma migration, a potential precursor to volcanic unrest and eruption.
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Constraints on the state of stress in the lithosphere are fundamental to understanding a breadth of geological phenomena. Paleo-stresses are generally estimated using microstructural elements for which there are experimentally calibrated relationships with applied stress, with an emphasis on recrystallised grain-size piezometers. However, it is often difficult to clearly distinguish newly recrystallised grains from the relict matrix. Furthermore, these grain-size piezometers are only applicable to rocks consisting of a single mineral. An alternative proxy for paleo-stress in polymineralic rocks is the average subgrain size. Unfortunately, estimates of subgrain size differ significantly among different measurement methods, and therefore, piezometers must be individually calibrated for the method used. Existing subgrain-size piezometers are based on calibrations using optical or transmission electron microscopy. We use electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), a common method of subgrain-boundary characterisation, to calibrate subgrain-size piezometers for both olivine and quartz. To test the application of our olivine subgrain-size piezometer to polymineralic rocks, we deformed synthetic mixtures of olivine and orthopyroxene. Experiments were conducted using a Deformation-DIA apparatus at beamline 6BM-B Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory. These experiments offer the unique possibility of simultaneously deforming the sample and measuring the average stresses within each phase using X-ray diffraction, before applying subgrain-size piezometry to the recovered samples. The results provide tests of (1) the manner in which stress is partitioned between phases, (2) whether the stresses measured in each phase by X-ray diffraction are comparable to those estimated by subgrain-size piezometry, and (3) whether stresses from subgrain piezometry can be used to estimate the macroscopic average applied stress. Stresses estimated from X-ray diffraction agree well with those made from subgrain-size piezometry in both monomineralic and polymineralic samples. In harzburgites, average stresses are similar in both phases and indicate that in this system, subgrain-size piezometric measurements from a single phase can be used to estimate the bulk stress.more » « less
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Abstract Seismic anisotropy arises in the upper mantle due to the alignment of olivine crystal lattices and is often used to interpret mantle flow direction. Experiments on the evolution of olivine crystal‐preferred orientation (CPO) have found that the texture that develops is dependent on many factors, including water content, differential stress, preexisting CPO, and deformation kinematics. To evaluate the role of these factors in naturally deformed samples, we present microstructural transects across three shear zones in the Josephine Peridotite. Samples from these shear zones exhibit a mixture of A‐type textures, which have been associated with dry conditions and primary activation of the olivine [100](010) slip system, and of E‐type textures, which have been associated with wetter conditions and primary activation of the [100](001) slip system. CPOs with characteristics of both A‐type and E‐type textures are also present. CPO type does not evolve systematically as a function of either strain or water content. We used a micromechanical model to evaluate the roles of preexisting texture and kinematics on olivine CPO evolution. We find that the preexisting texture controls CPO evolution at strains up to 5 during simple shear. Kinematics involving a combination of simple shear and pure shear can explain the olivine CPOs at higher strain. Hence, preexisting CPOs and deformation kinematics should be considered in the interpretation of CPOs measured in naturally deformed rocks and of large‐scale patterns in upper‐mantle seismic anisotropy.