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We understand very little about the timing and origins of bioluminescence, particularly as a predator avoidance strategy. Understanding the timing of its origins, however, can help elucidate the evolution of this ecologically important signal. Using fireflies, a prevalent bioluminescent group where bioluminescence primarily functions as aposematic and sexual signals, we explore the origins of this signal in the context of their potential predators. Divergence time estimations were performed using genomic-scale datasets providing a robust estimate for the origin of firefly bioluminescence as both a terrestrial and as an aerial signal. Our results recover the origin of terrestrial beetle bioluminescence at 141.17 (122.63–161.17) Ma and firefly aerial bioluminescence at 133.18 (117.86–152.47) Ma using a large dataset focused on Lampyridae; and terrestrial bioluminescence at 148.03 (130.12–166.80) Ma, with the age of aerial bioluminescence at 104.97 (99.00–120.90) Ma using a complementary Elateroidea dataset. These ages pre-date the origins of all known extant aerial predators (i.e. bats and birds) and support much older terrestrial predators (assassin bugs, frogs, ground beetles, lizards, snakes, hunting spiders and harvestmen) as the drivers of terrestrial bioluminescence in beetles. These ages also support the hypothesis that sexual signalling was probably the original function of this signal in aerial fireflies. 

Abstract Fireflies (Lampyridae Rafinesque) are a diverse family of beetles which exhibit an array of morphologies including varying antennal and photic organ features. Due in part to their morphological diversity, the classification within the Lampyridae has long been in flux. Here we use an anchored hybrid enrichment approach to reconstruct the most extensive molecular phylogeny of Lampyridae to date (436 loci and 98 taxa) and use this phylogeny to evaluate the higher-level classification of the group. None of the currently recognized subfamilies were recovered as monophyletic with high support. We propose several classification changes supported by both phylogenetic and morphological evidence: 1) Pollaclasis Newman, Vestini McDermott (incl. Vesta Laporte, Dodacles Olivier, Dryptelytra Laporte, and Ledocas Olivier), Photoctus McDermott, and Araucariocladus Silveira & Mermudes are transferred to Lampyridae incertae sedis, 2) Psilocladinae Mcdermott, 1964status novum is reestablished for the genus Psilocladus Blanchard, 3) Lamprohizini Kazantsev, 2010 is elevated to Lamprohizinae Kazantsev, 2010status novum and Phausis LeConte is transferred to Lamprohizinae, 4) Memoan Silveira and Mermudes is transferred to Amydetinae Olivier, and 5) Scissicauda McDermott is transferred to Lampyrinae Rafinesque.