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This study investigated how observing pitch gestures conveying lexical tones and representational gestures conveying word meanings when learning L2 Mandarin words differing in lexical tone affects their subsequent semantic and phonological processing in L1 English speakers using the N400 event-related potential (ERP). Larger N400s for English target words mismatching vs. matching Mandarin prime words in meaning were observed for words learned with pitch and representational gesture, but not no gesture. Additionally, larger N400s for Mandarin target words mismatching vs. matching Mandarin prime words in lexical tone were observed for words learned with pitch gesture, but not representational or no gesture. These findings provide the first ERP evidence that observing gestures conveying phonological and semantic information during L2 word learning enhances subsequent phonological and semantic processing of learned L2 words. 

Before they start to talk, infants learn the form and meaning of many common words. In the present work, we investigated the nature of this word knowledge, testing the specificity of very young infants’ (6-14 months) phonological represen- tations in an internet-based language-guided-looking task using correct pronunciations and initial-consonant mispronunciations of common words. Across the current sample (n=78 out of 96 pre-registered), infants’ proportion looking to the target (named image) versus the distracter was significantly lower when the target word was mispronounced, indicating sensitivity to phonological deviation. Performance patterns varied by age group. The youngest group (6-8 months, n=30) was at chance in both conditions, the middle group (9-11 months, n=21) showed significant recognition of correct pronunciations and a marginal mispronunciation effect, and the oldest age group (12-14 months, n=27) demonstrated the mature pattern: significant recognition and a significant mispronunciation effect. Ongoing work is completing the pre-registered sample size.