An official website of the United States government
Floods remain the most destructive natural hazard worldwide. Understanding and improving flood management at the community scale (i.e., levels larger than the individual or household, but smaller than regions, states, or nations) is important in order to reduce communities’ vulnerability to floods. The growing literature examining flood management at the community scale has not emphasized analysis of the impacts of a flood-risk management policy on migration and development. We contribute new evidence on the impact of the Community Ratings System (CRS), a community scale federal program, on migration and development in the United States. The CRS program was created in 1990 to enable communities to voluntarily reduce flood risks, and in return, receive discounted flood insurance premiums. Using panel data (1970–2010), the study estimates fixed-effects regressions with robust standard errors clustered by group. The results indicate that the CRS discourages new construction and the construction of mobile homes or trailers in participating communities. Also, the CRS discourages population growth, but encourages people to stay in CRS participating communities. The study will benefit both academics and practitioners by helping to illuminate the impact of the CRS on migration and development, and improve our understanding of community-scale flood risk management.
more »
« less
Flood Risk Management: Exploring the Impacts of the Community Rating System Program on Poverty and Income Inequality
Abstract Flooding remains a major problem for the United States, causing numerous deaths and damaging countless properties. To reduce the impact of flooding on communities, the U.S. government established the Community Rating System (CRS) in 1990 to reduce flood damages by incentivizing communities to engage in flood risk management initiatives that surpass those required by the National Flood Insurance Program. In return, communities enjoy discounted flood insurance premiums. Despite the fact that the CRS raises concerns about the potential for unevenly distributed impacts across different income groups, no study has examined the equity implications of the CRS. This study thus investigates the possibility of unintended consequences of the CRS by answering the question: What is the effect of the CRS on poverty and income inequality? Understanding the impacts of the CRS on poverty and income inequality is useful in fully assessing the unintended consequences of the CRS. The study estimates four fixed‐effects regression models using a panel data set of neighborhood‐level observations from 1970 to 2010. The results indicate that median incomes are lower in CRS communities, but rise in floodplains. Also, the CRS attracts poor residents, but relocates them away from floodplains. Additionally, the CRS attracts top earners, including in floodplains. Finally, the CRS encourages income inequality, but discourages income inequality in floodplains. A better understanding of these unintended consequences of the CRS on poverty and income inequality can help to improve the design and performance of the CRS and, ultimately, increase community resilience to flood disasters.
more »
« less
- PAR ID:
- 10030696
- Publisher / Repository:
- Wiley-Blackwell
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- Risk Analysis
- Volume:
- 38
- Issue:
- 3
- ISSN:
- 0272-4332
- Page Range / eLocation ID:
- p. 489-503
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
More Like this
-
-
This study presents the first systematic literature review of academic research on the FEMA Community Rating System (CRS) program. The CRS is a voluntary program created in 1990 as a means to incentivize communities in the United States to implement floodplain management activities that surpass those required under the National Flood Insurance Program. As participating communities adopt additional flood mitigation measures, flood insurance policyholders in those communities receive reductions in their flood insurance premiums. To identify studies for inclusion, the authors searched three academic databases using the keywords “Community Rating System” and “Federal Emergency Management Agency” and “Community Rating System” and “FEMA.” The search uncovered 44 studies that met the selection criteria (e.g., peer-reviewed, focus on CRS, and empirical) and are included in the review. The findings provide significant insights into the current state of research on the CRS. This paper concludes by providing some recommendations to policymakers aiming to enhance communities’ resilience to floods and by outlining a future research agenda for the academic and practitioner communities.more » « less
-
Many communities across the USA and globally lack full understanding of the flood risk that may adversely impact them. This information deficit can lead to increased risk of flooding and a lack of engagement in mitigation efforts. Climatic changes, development, and other factors have expedited changes to flood risk. Due to these changes, communities will have an increased need to communicate with a variety of stakeholders about flood risk and mitigation. Lafayette Parish, Louisiana, USA, having recently experienced a major flood event (the 2016 Louisiana Floods), is representative of other communities experiencing changes to flood impacts. Using focus groups, this study delves into better understanding the disconnect between individual and community perceptions of flood risks, and how emerging hydroinformatics tools can bridge these gaps. Using qualitative analysis, this study evaluated the resources individuals use to learn about flooding, how definitions of community impact flood mitigation efforts, how individuals define flooding and its causes, and where gaps in knowledge exist about flood mitigation efforts. This research demonstrates that individuals conceive of flooding in relationship to themselves and their immediate circle first. The study revealed division within the community in how individuals think about the causes of flooding and the potential solutions for reducing flood risk. Based on these results, we argue that helping individuals reconceive how they think about flooding may help them better appreciate the flood mitigation efforts needed at individual, community, and regional levels. Additionally, we suggest that reducing gaps in knowledge about mitigation strategies and broadening how individuals conceive of their community may deepen their understanding of flood impacts and what their community can do to address potential challenges.more » « less
-
Abstract Accurately delineating both pluvial and fluvial flood risk is critical to protecting vulnerable populations in urban environments. Although there are currently models and frameworks to estimate stormwater runoff and predict urban flooding, there are often minimal observations to validate results due to the quick retreat of floodwaters from affected areas. In this research, we compare and contrast different methodologies for capturing flood extent in order to highlight the challenges inherent in current methods for urban flooding delineation. This research focuses on two Philadelphia neighborhoods, Manayunk and Eastwick, that face frequent flooding. Overall, Philadelphia, PA is a city with a large proportion of vulnerable populations and is plagued by flooding, with expectations that flood risk will increase as climate change progresses. An array of data, including remotely sensed satellite imagery after major flooding events, Federal Emergency Management Agency’s Special Flood Hazard Areas, First Street Foundation’s Flood Factor, road closures, National Flood Insurance Program claims, and community surveys, were compared for the study areas. Here we show how stakeholder surveys can illuminate the weight of firsthand and communal knowledge on local understandings of stormwater and flood risk. These surveys highlighted different impacts of flooding, depending on the most persistent flood type, pluvial or fluvial, in each area, not present in large datasets. Given the complexity of flooding, there is no single method to fully encompass the impacts on both human well-being and the environment. Through the co-creation of flood risk knowledge, community members are empowered and play a critical role in fostering resilience in their neighborhoods. Community stormwater knowledge is a powerful tool that can be used as a complement to hydrologic flood delineation techniques to overcome common limitations in urban landscapes.more » « less
-
Abstract Pluvial floods pose a significant threat to properties, yet comprehensive impact analysis is hindered by data limitations on pluvial inundation. To assess pluvial flood impacts, we leveraged U.S. flood insurance claims and policy records for a subset of properties outside 100-year floodplains, streamflow records, and nationwide precipitation data, enabling us to distinguish damage claims caused by pluvial floods over 1978–2021. Strikingly, 87.1% of the claims analyzed from this subset were due to pluvial floods. Utilizing these pluvial flood claims unveiled distinct regional patterns of pluvial impacts across the contiguous U.S. These patterns are informed by the relationship between claim frequency and precipitation within each region. Remarkably, despite the pervasiveness of impacts, many states are seeing declining uptake in pluvial flood insurance coverage. Our study highlights regions facing heightened pluvial flood risks and underscores the critical need for enhanced consideration of pluvial inundation within risk management frameworks.more » « less
