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1. Categoricity, Variation, and Gradience in Sambla Balafon Segmental Encoding

   https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2021.652635  

   McPherson, Laura (May 2021, Frontiers in Communication)

   null (Ed.)

   This paper analyzes the musical surrogate encoding of Seenku (Mande, Burkina Faso) syllable structure on the balafon, a resonator xylophone used by the Sambla ethnicity. The elements of syllable structure that are encoded include vowel length, sesquisyllabicity, diphthongs, and nasal codas. Certain elements, like vowel length and sesquisyllabicity, involve categorical encoding through conscious rules of surrogate speech, while others, like diphthongs and nasal codas, vary between being treated as simple or complex. Beyond these categorical encodings, subtler aspects of rhythmic structure find their way into the speech surrogate through durational differences; these include duration differences from phonemic distinctions like vowel length in addition to subphonemic differences due to phrasal position. I argue that these subconscious durational differences arise from a “phonetic filter”, which mediates between the musician’s inner voice and their non-verbal behavior. Specifically, syllables encoded on the balafon may be timed according to the perceptual center (p-center) of natural spoken rhythm, pointing to a degree of phonetic detail in a musician’s inner speech. 

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2. The role of music in documenting phonological grammar: Two case studies from West Africa

   https://doi.org/10.3765/amp.v7i0.4493  

   McPherson, Laura (June 2019, Proceedings of the Annual Meetings on Phonology)

   Though the study of metrics and poetic verse has long informed phonological theory, studies of musical adaptation remain on the fringe of linguistic theory. In this paper, I argue that musical adaptation provides a unique window in speakers’ knowledge of their phonological system, which can provide crucial evidence for phonological theory. I draw on two case studies from my fieldwork in West Africa: tonal textsetting of sung folk music in Tommo So (Dogon, Mali) and the balafon surrogate language in Seenku (Mande, Burkina Faso). I show how results of these studies provide evidence for different levels of phonological grammar, the phonetics-phonology interface, and incomplete application of grammatical tone. Further, the case of the balafon surrogate language shows how studying music can be a valuable tool in language documentation and phonological description. Finally, preliminary study of Seenku tonal textsetting suggests important differences in the level of phonological encoding in vocal music vs. instrumental surrogate speech. 

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3. Musical surrogate languages in the documentation of complex tone: the case of the Sambla balafon

   https://doi.org/10.21437/TAL.2018-13  

   McPherson, Laura (June 2018, Proceedings of Tonal Aspects of Language 2018)

   In documenting an undescribed language, tone can pose a significant challenge. In practically no other aspect of the phonology can such a small set of categories show such an overlapping range of pronunciation, especially in level-tone languages where f0 slope offers fewer clues to category. This paper demonstrates the unexpected tool offered by musical surrogate languages in the documentation of these tone systems. It draws on the case study of the Sambla balafon, a resonator xylophone played by many ethnicities in Burkina Faso and neighboring West African countries. The language of the Sambla people, Seenku (Northwestern Mande, Samogo), has a highly complex tonal system, whose four contrastive levels and multiple contour tones are encoded musically in the notes of the balafon, allowing musicians to communicate with each other and with spectators without ever opening their mouths. I show how the balafon data have shed light on a number of tonal contrasts and phenomena and raised questions about levels of the grammar and their mental representations. 

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4. Complexity, Naturalness, and Explanatory Power: The Case of Seenku Argument-Head Tone Sandhi

   McPherson, Laura (January 2019, Proceedings of the 36th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics)

   When faced with complex phrasal phonological patterns, linguists are faced with a dilemma: since complex phenomena rarely lend themselves to simple analyses, where is the analytical complexity best justified? This talk explores the question using the test case of argument-head tone sandhi in Seenku (Western Mande, Burkina Faso), arguing that a morphological approach with a hierarchical lexicon offers a fuller account of the data than a complex phonological one. In Seenku, internal arguments trigger sandhi on their following heads. Like Taiwanese, tone changes are largely paradigmatic, but unlike most Sinitic sandhi systems, each base tone has more than one sandhi tone, depending on the argument's tone and whether it is pronominal or non-pronominal. A phonological account would necessitate mechanisms like anti-faithfulness or contrast preservation, but just a single underlying form could be maintained. A morphological account treats the alternations as allomorph selection, which requires a hierarchical lexicon with paradigms of subcategorization frames. Both approaches introduce complexity, but the phonological approach fails to account for several data patterns, including differences between pronominal and non-pronominal arguments, the immutability of multi-tonal heads, and lexical exceptions. Further, the single underlying form would be necessarily abstract, since certain heads appear obligatorily with an argument and hence always undergo sandhi. The allomorph selection approach addresses each of these complications and more naturally characterizes the linguistic competence of Seenku speakers. This result suggests that the lexicon may play a more powerful role than is often assumed, especially in cases where sound change has obscured once transparent phonological motivations. 

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5. Western Pantar

   Holton, Gary (January 2014, The Papuan Languages of Timor, Alor and Pantar: Volume 1. Sketch Grammars)

   Western Pantar (ISO 639-3 code lev) is spoken by an estimated 10,804 people on the southwestern portion of Pantar, west of the Sirung volcanic massif. The dry region of western Pantar is separated from the northern peninsula of the island by a physical barrier consisting of a number of steep-walled canyons. No road yet connects the northern peninsula with the western part of the island. In most of the academic literature the language is referred to as Lamma, though that name more properly refers to only a single dialect of the language. This description is based on first-hand field work by the author between 2004 and 2010. 

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