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1. Metabolic Feedback Inhibition Influences Metabolite Secretion by the Human Gut Symbiont Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron

   https://doi.org/10.1128/mSystems.00252-20  

   Catlett, Jennie L. ; Catazaro, Jonathan ; Cashman, Mikaela ; Carr, Sean ; Powers, Robert ; Cohen, Myra B. ; Buan, Nicole R. ( October 2020 , mSystems)

   Lal, Rup (Ed.)

   ABSTRACT Microbial metabolism and trophic interactions between microbes give rise to complex multispecies communities in microbe-host systems. Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron ( B. theta ) is a human gut symbiont thought to play an important role in maintaining host health. Untargeted nuclear magnetic resonance metabolomics revealed B. theta secretes specific organic acids and amino acids in defined minimal medium. Physiological concentrations of acetate and formate found in the human intestinal tract were shown to cause dose-dependent changes in secretion of metabolites known to play roles in host nutrition and pathogenesis. While secretion fluxes varied, biomass yield was unchanged, suggesting feedback inhibition does not affect metabolic bioenergetics but instead redirects carbon and energy to CO 2 and H 2 . Flux balance analysis modeling showed increased flux through CO 2 -producing reactions under glucose-limiting growth conditions. The metabolic dynamics observed for B. theta , a keystone symbiont organism, underscores the need for metabolic modeling to complement genomic predictions of microbial metabolism to infer mechanisms of microbe-microbe and microbe-host interactions. IMPORTANCE Bacteroides is a highly abundant taxon in the human gut, and Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron ( B. theta ) is a ubiquitous human symbiont that colonizes the host early in development and persists throughout its life span. The phenotypic plasticity of keystone organisms such as B. theta is important to understand in order to predict phenotype(s) and metabolic interactions under changing nutrient conditions such as those that occur in complex gut communities. Our study shows B. theta prioritizes energy conservation and suppresses secretion of “overflow metabolites” such as organic acids and amino acids when concentrations of acetate are high. Secreted metabolites, especially amino acids, can be a source of nutrients or signals for the host or other microbes in the community. Our study suggests that when metabolically stressed by acetate, B. theta stops sharing with its ecological partners. 

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2. Parsed synthesis of pyocyanin via co-culture enables context-dependent intercellular redox communication

   https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-021-01703-2  

   Chun, Kayla ; Stephens, Kristina ; Wang, Sally ; Tsao, Chen-Yu ; Payne, Gregory F. ; Bentley, William E. ( November 2021 , Microbial Cell Factories)

   Microbial co-cultures and consortia are of interest in cell-based molecular production and even as “smart” therapeutics in that one can take advantage of division of labor and specialization to expand both the range of available functions and mechanisms for control. The development of tools that enable coordination and modulation of consortia will be crucial for future application of multi-population cultures. In particular, these systems would benefit from an expanded toolset that enables orthogonal inter-strain communication.

   We created a co-culture for the synthesis of a redox-active phenazine signaling molecule, pyocyanin (PYO), by dividing its synthesis into the generation of its intermediate, phenazine carboxylic acid (PCA) from the first strain, followed by consumption of PCA and generation of PYO in a second strain. Interestingly, both PCA and PYO can be used to actuate gene expression in cells engineered with thesoxRSoxidative stress regulon, although importantly this signaling activity was found to depend on growth media. That is, like other signaling motifs in bacterial systems, the signaling activity is context dependent. We then used this co-culture’s phenazine signals in a tri-culture to modulate gene expression and production of three model products: quorum sensing molecule autoinducer-1 and two fluorescent marker proteins, eGFP and DsRed. We also showed how these redox-based signals could be intermingled with other quorum-sensing (QS) signals which are more commonly used in synthetic biology, to control complex behaviors. To provide control over product synthesis in the tri-cultures, we also showed how a QS-induced growth control module could guide metabolic flux in one population and at the same time guide overall tri-culture function. Specifically, we showed that phenazine signal recognition, enabled through the oxidative stress response regulonsoxRS,was dependent on media composition such that signal propagation within our parsed synthetic system could guide different desired outcomes based on the prevailing environment. In doing so, we expanded the range of signaling molecules available for coordination and the modes by which they can be utilized to influence overall function of a multi-population culture.

   Our results show that redox-based signaling can be intermingled with other quorum sensing signaling in ways that enable user-defined control of microbial consortia yielding various outcomes defined by culture medium. Further, we demonstrated the utility of our previously designed growth control module in influencing signal propagation and metabolic activity is unimpeded by orthogonal redox-based signaling. By exploring novel multi-modal strategies for guiding communication and consortia outcome, the concepts introduced here may prove to be useful for coordination of multiple populations within complex microbial systems.

    

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3. Complete Biosynthesis of Anthocyanins Using E. coli Polycultures

   https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00621-17  

   Jones, J. Andrew ; Vernacchio, Victoria R. ; Collins, Shannon M. ; Shirke, Abhijit N. ; Xiu, Yu ; Englaender, Jacob A. ; Cress, Brady F. ; McCutcheon, Catherine C. ; Linhardt, Robert J. ; Gross, Richard A. ; et al ( June 2017 , mBio)

   ABSTRACT Fermentation-based chemical production strategies provide a feasible route for the rapid, safe, and sustainable production of a wide variety of important chemical products, ranging from fuels to pharmaceuticals. These strategies have yet to find wide industrial utilization due to their inability to economically compete with traditional extraction and chemical production methods. Here, we engineer for the first time the complex microbial biosynthesis of an anthocyanin plant natural product, starting from sugar. This was accomplished through the development of a synthetic, 4-strain Escherichia coli polyculture collectively expressing 15 exogenous or modified pathway enzymes from diverse plants and other microbes. This synthetic consortium-based approach enables the functional expression and connection of lengthy pathways while effectively managing the accompanying metabolic burden. The de novo production of specific anthocyanin molecules, such as calistephin, has been an elusive metabolic engineering target for over a decade. The utilization of our polyculture strategy affords milligram-per-liter production titers. This study also lays the groundwork for significant advances in strain and process design toward the development of cost-competitive biochemical production hosts through nontraditional methodologies. IMPORTANCE To efficiently express active extensive recombinant pathways with high flux in microbial hosts requires careful balance and allocation of metabolic resources such as ATP, reducing equivalents, and malonyl coenzyme A (malonyl-CoA), as well as various other pathway-dependent cofactors and precursors. To address this issue, we report the design, characterization, and implementation of the first synthetic 4-strain polyculture. Division of the overexpression of 15 enzymes and transcription factors over 4 independent strain modules allowed for the division of metabolic burden and for independent strain optimization for module-specific metabolite needs. This study represents the most complex synthetic consortia constructed to date for metabolic engineering applications and provides a new paradigm in metabolic engineering for the reconstitution of extensive metabolic pathways in nonnative hosts. 

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4. Non-destructive quantification of anaerobic gut fungi and methanogens in co-culture reveals increased fungal growth rate and changes in metabolic flux relative to mono-culture

   https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-021-01684-2  

   Leggieri, Patrick A. ; Kerdman-Andrade, Corey ; Lankiewicz, Thomas S. ; Valentine, Megan T. ; O’Malley, Michelle A. ( October 2021 , Microbial Cell Factories)

   Quantification of individual species in microbial co-cultures and consortia is critical to understanding and designing communities with prescribed functions. However, it is difficult to physically separate species or measure species-specific attributes in most multi-species systems. Anaerobic gut fungi (AGF) (Neocallimastigomycetes) are native to the rumen of large herbivores, where they exist as minority members among a wealth of prokaryotes. AGF have significant biotechnological potential owing to their diverse repertoire of potent lignocellulose-degrading carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes), which indirectly bolsters activity of other rumen microbes through metabolic exchange. While decades of literature suggest that polysaccharide degradation and AGF growth are accelerated in co-culture with prokaryotes, particularly methanogens, methods have not been available to measure concentrations of individual species in co-culture. New methods to disentangle the contributions of AGF and rumen prokaryotes are sorely needed to calculate AGF growth rates and metabolic fluxes to prove this hypothesis and understand its causality for predictable co-culture design.

   We present a simple, microplate-based method to measure AGF and methanogen concentrations in co-culture based on fluorescence and absorbance spectroscopies. Using samples of < 2% of the co-culture volume, we demonstrate significant increases in AGF growth rate and xylan and glucose degradation rates in co-culture with methanogens relative to mono-culture. Further, we calculate significant differences in AGF metabolic fluxes in co-culture relative to mono-culture, namely increased flux through the energy-generating hydrogenosome organelle. While calculated fluxes highlight uncertainties in AGF primary metabolism that preclude definitive explanations for this shift, our method will enable steady-state fluxomic experiments to probe AGF metabolism in greater detail.

   The method we present to measure AGF and methanogen concentrations enables direct growth measurements and calculation of metabolic fluxes in co-culture. These metrics are critical to develop a quantitative understanding of interwoven rumen metabolism, as well as the impact of co-culture on polysaccharide degradation and metabolite production. The framework presented here can inspire new methods to probe systems beyond AGF and methanogens. Simple modifications to the method will likely extend its utility to co-cultures with more than two organisms or those grown on solid substrates to facilitate the design and deployment of microbial communities for bioproduction and beyond.

    

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5. Isotopic labeling of metabolic water with 18 O 2

   https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.9447  

   Koch, George W. ; Schwartz, Egbert ( January 2023 , Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry)

   Water is the medium of life, is involved in biochemical reactions, and is exchanged among internal pools and with the water in the external environment of organisms. Understanding these processes can be improved by isotopically labeling the metabolic water that is produced inside the cells of organisms during aerobic respiration.

   Here we describe a new method for isotopically labeling cellular water by incubating microbes and plant tissues in air enriched in¹⁸O₂. As oxygen gas is reduced during respiration, H₂¹⁸O is produced. The rate of H₂¹⁸O production and the synthesis of biomolecules that incorporate¹⁸O from H₂¹⁸O can be quantified using cavity ringdown spectrometry and isotope ratio mass spectrometry.

   ForEscherichia coliin solution culture, soil microbial communities, and respiring tissues of plants, the amount of H₂¹⁸O produced was strongly correlated with that of¹⁸O₂consumed during incubations. Measurements of¹⁸O in DNA, microbial biomass, and CO₂showed that metabolic water was an important substrate in biosynthesis reactions.

   Any organism with aerobic respiration is amenable to labeling with¹⁸O₂, and the method described here enables a new approach to investigate questions regarding plant and microbial physiology. In plants,¹⁸O introduced as metabolic water could be tracked as it moves between living cells and exchanges with external water. For probing soil microbial physiology, the method described here has the advantage over the application of exogenous H₂¹⁸O of not increasing the soil moisture, a disturbance that can affect microbial metabolism.

    

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