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1. Multimodal Cue Combinations: A Possible Approach to Designing In-Vehicle Takeover Requests for Semi-autonomous Driving

   https://doi.org/10.1177/1071181319631053  

   Huang, Gaojian; Steele, Clayton; Zhang, Xinrui; Pitts, Brandon J. (November 2019, Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting)

   The rapid growth of autonomous vehicles is expected to improve roadway safety. However, certain levels of vehicle automation will still require drivers to ‘takeover’ during abnormal situations, which may lead to breakdowns in driver-vehicle interactions. To date, there is no agreement on how to best support drivers in accomplishing a takeover task. Therefore, the goal of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of multimodal alerts as a feasible approach. In particular, we examined the effects of uni-, bi-, and trimodal combinations of visual, auditory, and tactile cues on response times to takeover alerts. Sixteen participants were asked to detect 7 multimodal signals (i.e., visual, auditory, tactile, visual-auditory, visual-tactile, auditory-tactile, and visual-auditory-tactile) while driving under two conditions: with SAE Level 3 automation only or with SAE Level 3 automation in addition to performing a road sign detection task. Performance on the signal and road sign detection tasks, pupil size, and perceived workload were measured. Findings indicate that trimodal combinations result in the shortest response time. Also, response times were longer and perceived workload was higher when participants were engaged in a secondary task. Findings may contribute to the development of theory regarding the design of takeover request alert systems within (semi) autonomous vehicles. 

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2. A Simulator Study on Drivers’ Response and Perception Towards Vehicle Cyberattacks

   https://doi.org/10.1177/1071181319631310  

   Zhang, Fangda; Petit, Jonathan; Roberts, Shannon C. (November 2019, Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting)

   The introduction of advanced technologies has made driving a more automated activity. However, most vehicles are not designed with cybersecurity considerations and hence, they are susceptible to cyberattacks. When such incidents happen, it is critical for drivers to respond properly. The goal of this study was to observe drivers’ responses to unexpected vehicle cyberattacks while driving in a simulated environment and to gain deeper insights into their perceptions of vehicle cybersecurity. Ten participants completed the experiment and the results showed that they perceived and responded differently to each vehicle cyberattack. Participants correctly identified the cybersecurity issue and took according action when the issue caused a noticeable visual and auditory response. Participants preferred to be clearly informed about what happened and what to do through a combination of visual, tactile, and auditory warnings. The lack of knowledge of vehicle cybersecurity was obvious among participants. 

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3. What Can My Car Tell Me? Consumer Perceptions of Transparency in Self-Driving Vehicles

   https://doi.org/10.1109/ICHMS56717.2022.9980645  

   Huff, Earl W.; Tucker, Natalie; Grady, Siobahn Day; Brinkley, Julian (November 2022, 2022 IEEE 3rd International Conference on Human-Machine Systems (ICHMS))

   Fully autonomous or “self-driving” vehicles are emerging mobility technology with potential benefits over conventional motor vehicles. Proponents argue that the widespread adoption of autonomous vehicles may save countless lives and millions of dollars annually by minimizing the likelihood of deadly vehicle crashes. However, widespread adoption of automated-driving technologies is required to realize such benefits, which research suggests, may be undermined by consumer concerns about vehicle operation transparency. Further, there is insufficient research into consumer perceptions of an autonomous vehicle’s communication and information-sharing behavior, which may impact their likelihood of purchasing one. We conducted a study using a 63-question internet-based survey distributed in the United States to licensed drivers 18 years of age and older (n=996) to examine consumer perceptions of autonomous vehicles across accountability, communication, information sharing, and concerns. Our findings show that consumer perceptions of the four dimensions vary significantly across race, gender, and ability. 

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4. Tell Me What I Need To Know: Consumers’ Desire for Information Transparency in Self-Driving Vehicles

   https://doi.org/10.1177/1071181321651240  

   Huff Jr, Earl W.; Day Grady, Siobahn; Brinnkley, Julian (September 2021, Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting)

   Fully autonomous or “self-driving” vehicles are an emerging mobility technology with a host of potential benefits over conventional motor vehicles. Proponents argue that widespread adoption of self-driving vehicles may save countless lives and millions of dollars annually by minimizing the likelihood of deadly vehicle crashes. However, for such benefits to be realized, widespread consumer adoption of self-driving technologies is a prerequisite. Prior research suggests that while consumers are broadly optimistic about the potential of vehicle automation, there are significant concerns that may undermine consumer adoption, such as the transparency of vehicle operation. There is insufficient research into consumers’ desire to understand a self-driving vehicle’s intent and decision-making process and its impact on their willingness to adopt. We conducted a study using a 63-question internet-based survey distributed in the United States to licensed drivers 18 years of age and older (n= 996) to examine consumer preferences of the information transparency of self-driving vehicles. Our findings suggest that middle-aged and older consumers of high household income were generally optimistic about the information sharing behavior and transparency of self-driving vehicles upon availability. 

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5. Lights, Camera, Autonomy! Exploring the Opinions of Older Adults Regarding Autonomous Vehicles Through Enactment

   Gluck, A.; Huff, E; Zhang, M; Brinkley, J (January 2020, Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting)

   Autonomous vehicles (AV), one of the transportation industry’s biggest innovations of the past few decades, bring the promise of safer roads and significantly lower vehicle-related fatalities. While many studies have found largely positive consumer opinions regarding operating and owning such a vehicle, older adults (55+) tend to express concerns about the safety and operational risks of a vehicle with unknown capabilities. To investigate how older adults and AVs may interact, we conducted an improv- style enactment-based participatory design pilot study. We found that initial concerns about trust and safety can be diminished through training and repetitive successful vehicle operation. Additionally, our participants provided insights into the AV design considerations, needs, and interactions for older adults. These findings add to the collective body of autonomous vehicle research by demonstrating that the needs of this growing population, who may benefit significantly from access to AVs, should be considered by manufacturers. 

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