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1. A postlarval instar of Phoxichilidium femoratum (Pycnogonida, Phoxichilidiidae) with an exceptional malformation

   https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.21303  

   Brenneis, Georg ; Scholtz, Gerhard ( November 2020 , Journal of Morphology)

   Individuals of the marine chelicerate lineage Pycnogonida (sea spiders) show considerable regenerative capabilities after appendage injury or loss. In their natural habitats, especially the long legs of sea spiders are commonly lost and regenerated, as is evidenced by the frequent encounter of specimens with missing or miniature legs. In contrast to this, the collection of individuals with abnormally developed appendages or trunk regions is comparably rare. Here, we studied a remarkable malformation in a postlarval instar of the speciesPhoxichilidium femoratum(Rathke, 1799) and describe the external morphology and internal organization of the specimen using a combination of fluorescent histochemistry and scanning electron microscopy. The individual completely lacks the last trunk segment with leg pair 4 and the normally penultimate trunk segment bears only a single aberrant appendage resembling an extension of the anteroposterior body axis. Externally, the proximal units of the articulated appendage are unpaired, but further distally a bifurcation into two equally developed leg‐like branches is found. Three‐dimensional reconstruction of the musculature reveals components of two regular leg muscle sets in several of the proximal articles. This confirms interpretation of the entire appendage as a malformed leg and reveals an externally hidden paired organization along its entire proximodistal axis. To explain the origin of this unique malformation, early pioneering studies on the regenerative potential of pycnogonids are evaluated and (a) an injury‐induced partial fusion of the developing limb buds of leg pair 3, as well as (b) irregular leg regeneration following near complete loss of trunk segments 3 and 4 are discussed. Which of the two hypotheses is more realistic remains to be tested by dedicated experimental approaches. These will have to rely on pycnogonid species with established laboratory husbandry in order to overcome the limitations of the few short‐term regeneration studies performed to date.

    

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2. Extensive loss of Wnt genes in Tardigrada

   https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-021-01954-y  

   Chavarria, Raul A. ; Game, Mandy ; Arbelaez, Briana ; Ramnarine, Chloe ; Snow, Zachary K. ; Smith, Frank W. ( December 2021 , BMC Ecology and Evolution)

   Wnt genes code for ligands that activate signaling pathways during development in Metazoa. Through the canonical Wnt (cWnt) signaling pathway, these genes regulate important processes in bilaterian development, such as establishing the anteroposterior axis and posterior growth. In Arthropoda, Wnt ligands also regulate segment polarity, and outgrowth and patterning of developing appendages. Arthropods are part of a lineage called Panarthropoda that includes Onychophora and Tardigrada. Previous studies revealed potential roles of Wnt genes in regulating posterior growth, segment polarity, and growth and patterning of legs in Onychophora. Unlike most other panarthropods, tardigrades lack posterior growth, but retain segmentation and appendages. Here, we investigated Wnt genes in tardigrades to gain insight into potential roles that these genes play during development of the highly compact and miniaturized tardigrade body plan.

   We analyzed published genomes for two representatives of Tardigrada,Hypsibius exemplarisandRamazzottius varieornatus. We identified single orthologs ofWnt4,Wnt5,Wnt9,Wnt11, andWntA, as well as twoWnt16paralogs in both tardigrade genomes. We only found aWnt2ortholog inH. exemplaris. We could not identify orthologs ofWnt1,Wnt6,Wnt7,Wnt8, orWnt10. We identified most other components of cWnt signaling in both tardigrade genomes. However, we were unable to identify an ortholog ofarrow/Lrp5/6, a gene that codes for a Frizzled co-receptor of Wnt ligands. Additionally, we found that some other animals that have lost several Wnt genes and are secondarily miniaturized, like tardigrades, are also missing an ortholog ofarrow/Lrp5/6. We analyzed the embryonic expression patterns of Wnt genes inH. exemplarisduring developmental stages that span the establishment of the AP axis through segmentation and leg development. We detected expression of all Wnt genes inH. exemplarisbesides one of theWnt16paralogs. During embryo elongation, expression of several Wnt genes was restricted to the posterior pole or a region between the anterior and posterior poles. Wnt genes were expressed in distinct patterns during segmentation and development of legs inH. exemplaris, rather than in broadly overlapping patterns.

   Our results indicate that Wnt signaling has been highly modified in Tardigrada. While most components of cWnt signaling are conserved in tardigrades, we conclude that tardigrades have lostWnt1,Wnt6,Wnt7,Wnt8, andWnt10, along witharrow/Lrp5/6. Our expression data may indicate a conserved role of Wnt genes in specifying posterior identities during establishment of the AP axis. However, the loss of several Wnt genes and the distinct expression patterns of Wnt genes during segmentation and leg development may indicate that combinatorial interactions among Wnt genes are less important during tardigrade development compared to many other animals. Based on our results, and comparisons to previous studies, we speculate that the loss of several Wnt genes in Tardigrada may be related to a reduced number of cells and simplified development that accompanied miniaturization and anatomical simplification in this lineage.

    

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3. Systemic paralogy and function of retinal determination network homologs in arachnids

   https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-020-07149-x  

   Gainett, Guilherme ; Ballesteros, Jesús A. ; Kanzler, Charlotte R. ; Zehms, Jakob T. ; Zern, John M. ; Aharon, Shlomi ; Gavish-Regev, Efrat ; Sharma, Prashant P. ( December 2020 , BMC Genomics)

   null (Ed.)

   Abstract Background Arachnids are important components of cave ecosystems and display many examples of troglomorphisms, such as blindness, depigmentation, and elongate appendages. Little is known about how the eyes of arachnids are specified genetically, let alone the mechanisms for eye reduction and loss in troglomorphic arachnids. Additionally, duplication of Retinal Determination Gene Network (RDGN) homologs in spiders has convoluted functional inferences extrapolated from single-copy homologs in pancrustacean models. Results We investigated a sister species pair of Israeli cave whip spiders, Charinus ioanniticus and C. israelensis (Arachnopulmonata, Amblypygi), of which one species has reduced eyes. We generated embryonic transcriptomes for both Amblypygi species, and discovered that several RDGN homologs exhibit duplications. We show that duplication of RDGN homologs is systemic across arachnopulmonates (arachnid orders that bear book lungs), rather than being a spider-specific phenomenon. A differential gene expression (DGE) analysis comparing the expression of RDGN genes in field-collected embryos of both species identified candidate RDGN genes involved in the formation and reduction of eyes in whip spiders. To ground bioinformatic inference of expression patterns with functional experiments, we interrogated the function of three candidate RDGN genes identified from DGE using RNAi in the spider Parasteatoda tepidariorum . We provide functional evidence that one of these paralogs, sine oculis/Six1 A ( soA ), is necessary for the development of all arachnid eye types. Conclusions Our work establishes a foundation to investigate the genetics of troglomorphic adaptations in cave arachnids, and links differential gene expression to an arthropod eye phenotype for the first time outside of Pancrustacea. Our results support the conservation of at least one RDGN component across Arthropoda and provide a framework for identifying the role of gene duplications in generating arachnid eye diversity. 

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4. A Population-Genetic Lens into the Process of Gene Loss Following Whole-Genome Duplication

   https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msac118  

   Johri, Parul ; Gout, Jean-Francois ; Doak, Thomas G ; Lynch, Michael ( June 2022 , Molecular Biology and Evolution)

   Wittkopp, Patricia (Ed.)

   Abstract Whole-genome duplications (WGDs) have occurred in many eukaryotic lineages. However, the underlying evolutionary forces and molecular mechanisms responsible for the long-term retention of gene duplicates created by WGDs are not well understood. We employ a population-genomic approach to understand the selective forces acting on paralogs and investigate ongoing duplicate-gene loss in multiple species of Paramecium that share an ancient WGD. We show that mutations that abolish protein function are more likely to be segregating in retained WGD paralogs than in single-copy genes, most likely because of ongoing nonfunctionalization post-WGD. This relaxation of purifying selection occurs in only one WGD paralog, accompanied by the gradual fixation of nonsynonymous mutations and reduction in levels of expression, and occurs over a long period of evolutionary time, “marking” one locus for future loss. Concordantly, the fitness effects of new nonsynonymous mutations and frameshift-causing indels are significantly more deleterious in the highly expressed copy compared with their paralogs with lower expression. Our results provide a novel mechanistic model of gene duplicate loss following WGDs, wherein selection acts on the sum of functional activity of both duplicate genes, allowing the two to wander in expression and functional space, until one duplicate locus eventually degenerates enough in functional efficiency or expression that its contribution to total activity is too insignificant to be retained by purifying selection. Retention of duplicates by such mechanisms predicts long times to duplicate-gene loss, which should not be falsely attributed to retention due to gain/change in function. 

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5. The evolution of selector gene function: Expression dynamics and regulatory interactions of tiptop/teashirt across Arthropoda

   https://doi.org/10.1111/ede.12270  

   March, Logan E. ; Smaby, Rachel M. ; Setton, Emily V. W. ; Sharma, Prashant P. ( September 2018 , Evolution & Development)

   The transcription factorsspineless(ss) andtiptop/teashirt(tio/tsh) have been shown to be selectors of distal appendage identity in an insect, but it is unknown how they regulate one another. Here, we examined the regulatory relationships between these two determinants in the milkweed bugOncopeltus faciatus, using maternal RNA interference (RNAi). We show thatOfas‐ssRNAi embryos bear distally transformed antennal buds with heterogeneousOfas‐tio/tshexpression domains comparable to wild type legs. In the reciprocal experiment,Ofas‐tio/tshRNAi embryos bear distally transformed walking limb buds with ectopic expression ofOfas‐ssin the distal leg primordia. These data suggest thatOfas‐ssis required for the maintenance ofOfas‐tio/tshexpression in the distal antenna, whereasOfas‐tio/tshrepressesOfas‐ssin the leg primordia. To assess whether expression boundaries oftio/tshare associated with the trunk region more generally, we surveyed the expression of one myriapod and two cheliceratetio/tshhomologs. Our expression survey suggests thattio/tshcould play a role in specifying distal appendage identity across Arthropoda, but Hox regulation oftio/tshhomologs has been evolutionarily labile.

    

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