Estimation of muscle forces during motion involves solving an indeterminate problem (more unknown muscle forces than joint moment constraints), frequently via optimization methods. When the dynamics of muscle activation and contraction are modeled for consistency with muscle physiology, the resulting optimization problem is dynamic and challenging to solve. This study sought to identify a robust and computationally efficient formulation for solving these dynamic optimization problems using direct collocation optimal control methods. Four problem formulations were investigated for walking based on both a two and three dimensional model. Formulations differed in the use of either an explicit or implicit representation of contraction dynamics with either muscle length or tendon force as a state variable. The implicit representations introduced additional controls defined as the time derivatives of the states, allowing the nonlinear equations describing contraction dynamics to be imposed as algebraic path constraints, simplifying their evaluation. Problem formulation affected computational speed and robustness to the initial guess. The formulation that used explicit contraction dynamics with muscle length as a state failed to converge in most cases. In contrast, the two formulations that used implicit contraction dynamics converged to an optimal solution in all cases for all initial guesses, with tendon force as a state generally being the fastest. Future work should focus on comparing the present approach to other approaches for computing muscle forces. The present approach lacks some of the major limitations of established methods such as static optimization and computed muscle control while remaining computationally efficient.
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Math Word Problem Generation with Mathematical Consistency and Problem Context Constraints
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The replenishment storage problem (RSP) is to minimize the storage capacity requirement for a deterministic demand, multi-item inventory system, where each item has a given reorder size and cycle length. We consider the discrete RSP, where reorders can only take place at an integer time unit within the cycle. Discrete RSP was shown to be NP-hard for constant joint cycle length (the least common multiple of the length of all individual cycles). We show here that discrete RSP is weakly NP-hard for constant joint cycle length and prove that it is strongly NP-hard for nonconstant joint cycle length. For constant joint cycle-length discrete RSP, we further present a pseudopolynomial time algorithm that solves the problem optimally and the first known fully polynomial time approximation scheme (FPTAS) for the single-cycle RSP. The scheme is utilizing a new integer programming formulation of the problem that is introduced here. For the strongly NP-hard RSP with nonconstant joint cycle length, we provide a polynomial time approximation scheme (PTAS), which for any fixed [Formula: see text], provides a linear time [Formula: see text] approximate solution. The continuous RSP, where reorders can take place at any time within a cycle, seems (with our results) to be easier than the respective discrete problem. We narrow the previously known complexity gap between the continuous and discrete versions of RSP for the multi-cycle RSP (with either constant or nonconstant cycle length) and the single-cycle RSP with constant cycle length and widen the gap for single-cycle RSP with nonconstant cycle length. For the multi-cycle case and constant joint cycle length, the complexity status of continuous RSP is open, whereas it is proved here that the discrete RSP is weakly NP-hard. Under our conjecture that the continuous RSP is easier than the discrete one, this implies that continuous RSP on multi-cycle and constant joint cycle length (currently of unknown complexity status) is at most weakly NP-hard.more » « less
- Free Publicly Accessible Full Text
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Accepted Manuscript1.0
- Conference Paper:
- https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2021.emnlp-main.484
