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The regionalized vertebral column is a hallmark of mammalian morphology and reflects functional differentiation of the vertebral regions. Mammalian vertebrae are serially homologous and morphologically patterened by Hox expression, but also vary in number and gross morphology across species. The trabecular bone inside vertebral centra is more plastic than gross vertebral bone, and structurally adapts to better withstand forces it experiences during life. However, the functional regionalization of vertebral trabecular bone is poorly examined. Are there trabecular "regions” reflecting the differing functions and in-vivo stress patterns of gross morphological vertebral regions? Or is trabecular morphology homogeneous throughout the spine, suggesting that differences in functional demands are borne exclusively by external characteristics? To address these questions, we collected μCT scans and linear measurements of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae in four species of large shrews, including two species of the hero shrew Scutisorex, which has a highly modified vertebral column. We compared linear measurements and trabecular bone characteristics of the cranial and caudal ends of each centrum across species. To detect unique vertebral regions, we executed principal coordinates analysis and segmented regression on three versions of our data set: trabecular bone data only, external measurements only, and the two combined. We found that some regionalization is recovered using only trabecular bone data, but trabecular bone regions do not correspond exactly to gross vertebral regions. This reflects divergence between the functional signals of internal and external vertebral bone morphology, which should be further examined in a kinematic context.
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Vertebral Trabecular Bone Mechanical Properties Vary Among Functional Groups of Cetaceans
Synopsis Since their appearance in the fossil record 34 million years ago, modern cetaceans (dolphins, whales, and porpoises) have radiated into diverse habitats circumglobally, developing vast phenotypic variations among species. Traits such as skeletal morphology and ecologically linked behaviors denote swimming activity; trade-offs in flexibility and rigidity along the vertebral column determine patterns of caudal oscillation. Here, we categorized 10 species of cetaceans (families Delphinidae and Kogiidae; N = 21 animals) into functional groups based on vertebral centra morphology, swimming speeds, diving behavior, and inferred swimming patterns. We quantified trabecular bone mechanical properties (yield strength, apparent stiffness, and resilience) among functional groups and regions of the vertebral column (thoracic, lumbar, and caudal). We extracted 6 mm3 samples from vertebral bodies and tested them in compression in 3 orientations (rostrocaudal, dorsoventral, and mediolateral) at 2 mm min−1. Overall, bone from the pre-fluke/fluke boundary had the greatest yield strength and resilience, indicating that the greatest forces are translated to the tail during caudal oscillatory swimming. Group 1, composed of 5 shallow-diving delphinid species, had the greatest vertebral trabecular bone yield strength, apparent stiffness, and resilience of all functional groups. Conversely, Group 3, composed of 2 deep-diving kogiid species, had the least strong, stiff, and resilient bone, while Group 2 (3 deep-diving delphinid species) exhibited intermediate values. These data suggest that species that incorporate prolonged glides during deep descents in the water column actively swim less, and place relatively smaller loads on their vertebral columns, compared with species that execute shallower dives. We found that cetacean vertebral trabecular bone properties differed from the properties of terrestrial mammals; for every given bone strength, cetacean bone was less stiff by comparison. This relative lack of material rigidity within vertebral bone may be attributed to the non-weight-bearing locomotor modes of fully aquatic mammals.
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- Award ID(s):
- 1941713
- PAR ID:
- 10362477
- Publisher / Repository:
- Oxford University Press
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- Integrative Organismal Biology
- Volume:
- 4
- Issue:
- 1
- ISSN:
- 2517-4843
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
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