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1. Pictorial depth cues in young children’s drawings of layouts and objects.

   Morfoisse, Théo; Gureckis, Todd; Dillon, Moira (January 2020, Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society)

   null (Ed.)

   Humans have been faced with the challenges of pictorial production since at least the Paleolithic. Curiously, while the capacity to navigate layouts and recognize objects in everyday life comes almost effortlessly, inherited from our evolutionary past, the capacity to draw layouts and objects is more effortful, often needing time to improve over the course of an individual’s development and with the technological innovations acquired through culture. The present study examines whether young children might nevertheless rely on phylogenetically ancient spatial capacities for navigation and object recognition when creating uniquely human pictorial art. We apply a novel digital coding technique to a publicly available dataset of young children’s drawings of layouts and objects to explore children’s use of classic pictorial depth cues including size, position, and overlap. To convey pictorial depth, children appear to adopt several cues, without a preference among them, younger than had been suggested by previous studies that used other, less rich, analytic techniques. Moreover, children use more cues to pictorial depth in drawings of layouts versus objects. Children’s creation of uniquely human pictorial symbols may thus reflect their heightened use of depth for navigating layouts compared to recognizing objects, both cognitive capacities that humans share with other animals. 

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2. Parallel developmental changes in children’s production and recognition of line drawings of visual concepts

   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44529-9  

   Long, Bria; Fan, Judith E; Huey, Holly; Chai, Zixian; Frank, Michael C (February 2024, Nature Communications)

   Childhood is marked by the rapid accumulation of knowledge and the prolific production of drawings. We conducted a systematic study of how children create and recognize line drawings of visual concepts. We recruited 2-10-year-olds to draw 48 categories via a kiosk at a children’s museum, resulting in >37K drawings. We analyze changes in the category-diagnostic information in these drawings using vision algorithms and annotations of object parts. We find developmental gains in children’s inclusion of category-diagnostic information that are not reducible to variation in visuomotor control or effort. Moreover, even unrecognizable drawings contain information about the animacy and size of the category children tried to draw. Using guessing games at the same kiosk, we find that children improve across childhood at recognizing each other’s line drawings. This work leverages vision algorithms to characterize developmental changes in children’s drawings and suggests that these changes reflect refinements in children’s internal representations. 

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3. Drawings as a window into developmental changes in object representations

   Long, B.; Fan, J. E.; Frank, M. C. (July 2018, Proceedings of the 40th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society.)

   How do children’s representations of object categories change as they grow older? As they learn about the world around them, they also express what they know in the drawings they make. Here, we examine drawings as a window into how children represent familiar object categories, and how this changes across childhood. We asked children (age 3-10 years) to draw familiar object categories on an iPad. First, we analyzed their semantic content, finding large and consistent gains in how well children could produce drawings that are recognizable to adults. Second, we quantified their perceptual similarity to adult drawings using a pre-trained deep convolutional neural network, allowing us to visualize the representational layout of object categories across age groups using a common feature basis. We found that the organization of object categories in older children’s drawings were more similar to that of adults than younger children’s drawings. This correspondence was strong in the final layers of the neural network, showing that older children’s drawings tend to capture the perceptual features critical for adult recognition. We hypothesize that this improvement reflects increasing convergence between children’s representations of object categories and that of adults; future work will examine how these age-related changes relate to children’s developing perceptual and motor capacities. Broadly, these findings point to drawing as a rich source of insight into how children represent object concepts. 

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4. Developmental changes in the ability to draw distinctive features of object categories

   Long, B.; Fan, J.; Chai, Z.; & Frank, M. C. (July 2019, Proceedings of the 41st Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society.)

   How do children’s visual concepts change across childhood, and how might these changes be reflected in their drawings? Here we investigate developmental changes in children’s ability to emphasize the relevant visual distinctions between object categories in their drawings. We collected over 13K drawings from children aged 2-10 years via a free-standing drawing station in a children’s museum. We hypothesized that older children would produce more recognizable drawings, and that this gain in recognizability would not be entirely explained by concurrent development in visuomotor control. To measure recognizability, we applied a pretrained deep convolutional neural network model to extract a high-level feature representation of all drawings, and then trained a multi-way linear classifier on these features. To measure visuomotor control, we developed an automated procedure to measure their ability to accurately trace complex shapes. We found consistent gains in the recognizability of drawings across ages that were not fully explained by children’s ability to accurately trace complex shapes. Furthermore, these gains were accompanied by an increase in how distinct different object categories were in feature space. Overall, these results demonstrate that children’s drawings include more distinctive visual features as they grow older. 

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5. Seeing the Forest but Naming the Trees: An Object-Over-Place Bias in Learning Noun Labels

   https://doi.org/10.1162/opmi_a_00154  

   Lin, Yi; Dillon, Moira R (January 2024, Open Mind)

   Abstract Objects and places are foundational spatial domains represented in human symbolic expressions, like drawings, which show a prioritization of depicting small-scale object-shape information over the large-scale navigable place information in which objects are situated. Is there a similar object-over-place bias in language? Across six experiments, adults and 3- to 4-year-old children were asked either to extend a novel noun in a labeling phrase, to extend a novel noun in a prepositional phrase, or to simply match pictures. To dissociate specific object and place information from more general figure and ground information, participants either saw scenes with both place information (a room) and object information (a block in the room), or scenes with two kinds of object information that matched the figure-ground relations of the room and block by presenting an open container with a smaller block inside. While adults showed a specific object-over-place bias in both extending novel noun labels and matching, they did not show this bias in extending novel nouns following prepositions. Young children showed this bias in extending novel noun labels only. Spatial domains may thus confer specific and foundational biases for word learning that may change through development in a way that is similar to that of other word-learning biases about objects, like the shape bias. These results expand the symbolic scope of prior studies on object biases in drawing to object biases in language, and they expand the spatial domains of prior studies characterizing the language of objects and places. 

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