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   Today, Bluetooth 4.0, also known as Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), has been widely used in many IoT devices (e.g., smart locks, smart sensors, and wearables). However, BLE devices could contain a number of vulnerabilities at the BLE link layer during broadcasting, pairing, and message transmission. To detect these vulnerabilities directly from the bare-metal firmware, we present FirmXRay, the first static binary analysis tool with a set of enabling techniques including a novel base address identification algorithm for robust firmware disassembling, precise data structure recognition, and configuration value resolution. As a proof-of-concept, we focus on the BLE firmware from two leading SoC vendors (i.e., Nordic and Texas Instruments), and implement a prototype of FirmXRay atop Ghidra. We have evaluated FirmXRay with 793 unique firmware (corresponding to 538 unique devices) collected using a mobile app based approach, and our experiment results show that 98.1% of the devices have configured random static MAC addresses, 71.5% Just Works pairing, and 98.5% insecure key exchanges. With these vulnerabilities, we demonstrate identity tracking, spoofing, and eavesdropping attacks on real-world BLE devices. 

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