Widespread liquefaction occurred in the end-dumped gravelly fills and hydraulically-placed dredged sandy fill at the CentrePort of Wellington as a result of the 14 November 2016 Mw7.8 Kaikoura earthquake. This liquefaction resulted in substantial global (mass) settlement and lateral movement (spreading) of the fills towards the sea, which adversely affected wharf structures and buildings constructed on shallow and deep foundations. This paper presents key observations from the QuakeCoRE-GEER post-earthquake reconnaissance efforts at the CentrePort Wellington. The different materials and methods used to construct the reclaimed land at CentrePort influenced the patterns of observed liquefaction and its effects. Areas of gravel liquefaction at the port are especially important due to the limited number of these case histories in the literature. Liquefaction-induced ground deformations caused the wharves to displace laterally and damage their piles and offloading equipment. Lateral ground extension and differential settlement damaged buildings, whereas buildings in areas of uniform ground settlement without lateral extension performed significantly better.
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This content will become publicly available on March 7, 2025
Liquefaction-induced ground and building interactions in İskenderun from the 2023 Kahramanmaraş earthquake sequence
Significant and widespread liquefaction occurred in İskenderun during the 2023 moment magnitude (Mw) 7.8 Kahramanmaraş earthquake. Liquefaction effects on buildings were observed in several areas of İskenderun, predominantly in areas of reclaimed land and near historic shorelines. Liquefaction-induced building settlements were particularly concentrated in the Çay District, which is almost entirely reclaimed land. Liquefaction-induced ground and building settlements were either marginal or not apparent in areas away from the historical shorelines. Building settlement and ground deformation were documented at 26 buildings in İskenderun through lidar scans and laser-level hand measurements. Liquefaction-induced building settlements ranged from 0 to 740 mm. Building-ground interactions were evident from hogging ground deformations, including cases where buildings deformed nearby ground and damaged nearby buildings, and sagging buildings. Historic land development affected the spatial extent of observed liquefaction-induced building damage. Representative liquefaction-induced building settlement and building interaction case histories are discussed and key insights are shared.
more » « less- NSF-PAR ID:
- 10494532
- Publisher / Repository:
- SAGE Publications
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- Earthquake Spectra
- ISSN:
- 8755-2930
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
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null (Ed.)The 2019 Ridgecrest earthquake sequence produced a 4 July M 6.5 foreshock and a 5 July M 7.1 mainshock, along with 23 events with magnitudes greater than 4.5 in the 24 hr period following the mainshock. The epicenters of the two principal events were located in the Indian Wells Valley, northwest of Searles Valley near the towns of Ridgecrest, Trona, and Argus. We describe observed liquefaction manifestations including sand boils, fissures, and lateral spreading features, as well as proximate non‐ground failure zones that resulted from the sequence. Expanding upon results initially presented in a report of the Geotechnical Extreme Events Reconnaissance Association, we synthesize results of field mapping, aerial imagery, and inferences of ground deformations from Synthetic Aperture Radar‐based damage proxy maps (DPMs). We document incidents of liquefaction, settlement, and lateral spreading in the Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake US military base and compare locations of these observations to pre‐ and postevent mapping of liquefaction hazards. We describe liquefaction and ground‐failure features in Trona and Argus, which produced lateral deformations and impacts on several single‐story masonry and wood frame buildings. Detailed maps showing zones with and without ground failure are provided for these towns, along with mapped ground deformations along transects. Finally, we describe incidents of massive liquefaction with related ground failures and proximate areas of similar geologic origin without ground failure in the Searles Lakebed. Observations in this region are consistent with surface change predicted by the DPM. In the same region, geospatial liquefaction hazard maps are effective at identifying broad percentages of land with liquefaction‐related damage. We anticipate that data presented in this article will be useful for future liquefaction susceptibility, triggering, and consequence studies being undertaken as part of the Next Generation Liquefaction project.more » « less
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The historical settlement data compilation for Spain (HISDAC-ES) is a geospatial dataset consisting of over 240 gridded surfaces measuring the physical, functional, age-related, and evolutionary characteristics of the Spanish building stock. We scraped, harmonized, and aggregated cadastral building footprint data for Spain, covering over 12,000,000 building footprints including construction year attributes, to create a multi-faceted series of gridded surfaces (GeoTIFF format), describing the evolution of human settlements in Spain from 1900 to 2020, at 100m spatial and 5 years temporal resolution. Also, the dataset contains aggregated characteristics and completeness statistics at the municipality level, in CSV and GeoPackage format.
!!! UPDATE 08-2023 !!!: We provide a new, improved version of HISDAC-ES. Specifically, we fixed two bugs in the production code that caused an incorrect rasterization of the multitemporal BUFA layers and of the PHYS layers (BUFA, BIA, DWEL, BUNITS sum and mean). Moreover, we added decadal raster datasets measuring residential building footprint and building indoor area (1900-2020), and provide a country-wide, harmonized building footprint centroid dataset in GeoPackage vector data format.
File descriptions:
Datasets are available in three spatial reference systems:
- HISDAC-ES_All_LAEA.zip: Raster data in Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area (LAEA) covering all Spanish territory.
- HISDAC-ES_IbericPeninsula_UTM30.zip: Raster data in UTM Zone 30N covering all the Iberic Peninsula + Céuta and Melilla.
- HISDAC-ES_CanaryIslands_REGCAN.zip: Raster data in REGCAN-95, covering the Canary Islands only.
- HISDAC-ES_MunicipAggregates.zip: Municipality-level aggregates and completeness statistics (CSV, GeoPackage), in LAEA projection.
- ES_building_centroids_merged_spatjoin.gpkg: 7,000,000+ building footprint centroids in GeoPackage format, harmonized from the different cadastral systems, representing the input data for HISDAC-ES. These data can be used for sanity checks or for the creation of further, user-defined gridded surfaces.
Source data:
HISDAC-ES is derived from cadastral building footprint data, available from different authorities in Spain:
- Araba province: https://geo.araba.eus/WFS_Katastroa?SERVICE=WFS&VERSION=1.1.0&REQUEST=GetCapabilities
- Bizkaia province: https://web.bizkaia.eus/es/inspirebizkaia
- Gipuzkoa province: https://b5m.gipuzkoa.eus/web5000/es/utilidades/inspire/edificios/
- Navarra region: https://inspire.navarra.es/services/BU/wfs
- Other regions: http://www.catastro.minhap.es/INSPIRE/buildings/ES.SDGC.bu.atom.xml
- Data source of municipality polygons: Centro Nacional de Información Geográfica (https://centrodedescargas.cnig.es/CentroDescargas/index.jsp)
Technical notes:
Gridded data
File nomenclature:
./region_projection_theme/hisdac_es_theme_variable_version_resolution[m][_year].tif
Regions:
- all: complete territory of Spain
- can: Canarian Islands only
- ibe: Iberic peninsula + Céuta + Melilla
Projections:
- laea: Lambert azimuthal equal area (EPSG:3035)
- regcan: REGCAN95 / UTM zone 28N (EPSG:4083)
- utm: ETRS89 / UTM zone 30N (EPSG:25830)
Themes:
- evolution / evol: multi-temporal physical measurements
- landuse: multi-temporal building counts per land use (i.e., building function) class
- physical / phys: physical building characteristics in 2020
- temporal / temp: temporal characteristics (construction year statistics)
Variables: evolution
- budens: building density (count per grid cell area)
- bufa: building footprint area
- deva: developed area (any grid cell containing at least one building)
- resbufa: residential building footprint area
- resbia: residential building indoor area
Variables: physical
- bia: building indoor area
- bufa: building footprint area
- bunits: number of building units
- dwel: number of dwellings
Variables: temporal
- mincoy: minimum construction year per grid cell
- maxcoy: minimum construction year per grid cell
- meancoy: mean construction year per grid cell
- medcoy: median construction year per grid cell
- modecoy: mode (most frequent) construction year per grid cell
- varcoy: variety of construction years per grid cell
Variable: landuse
Counts of buildings per grid cell and land use type.
Municipality-level data
- hisdac_es_municipality_stats_multitemporal_longform_v1.csv: This CSV file contains the zonal sums of the gridded surfaces (e.g., number of buildings per year and municipality) in long form. Note that a value of 0 for the year attribute denotes the statistics for records without construction year information.
- hisdac_es_municipality_stats_multitemporal_wideform_v1.csv: This CSV file contains the zonal sums of the gridded surfaces (e.g., number of buildings per year and municipality) in wide form. Note that a value of 0 for the year suffix denotes the statistics for records without construction year information.
- hisdac_es_municipality_stats_completeness_v1.csv: This CSV file contains the missingness rates (in %) of the building attribute per municipality, ranging from 0.0 (attribute exists for all buildings) to 100.0 (attribute exists for none of the buildings) in a given municipality.
Column names for the completeness statistics tables:
- NATCODE: National municipality identifier*
- num_total: number of buildings per munic
- perc_bymiss: Percentage of buildings with missing built year (construction year)
- perc_lumiss: Percentage of buildings with missing landuse attribute
- perc_luother: Percentage of buildings with landuse type "other"
- perc_num_floors_miss: Percentage of buildings without valid number of floors attribute
- perc_num_dwel_miss: Percentage of buildings without valid number of dwellings attribute
- perc_num_bunits_miss: Percentage of buildings without valid number of building units attribute
- perc_offi_area_miss: Percentage of buildings without valid official area (building indoor area, BIA) attribute
- perc_num_dwel_and_num_bunits_miss: Percentage of buildings missing both number of dwellings and number of building units attribute
The same statistics are available as geopackage file including municipality polygons in Lambert azimuthal equal area (EPSG:3035).
*From the NATCODE, other regional identifiers can be derived as follows:
- NATCODE: 34 01 04 04001
- Country: 34
- Comunidad autónoma (CA_CODE): 01
- Province (PROV_CODE): 04
- LAU code: 04001 (province + municipality code)
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Airborne laser scanning has proven useful for rapid and extensive documentation of historic cultural landscapes after years of applications mapping natural landscapes and the built environment. The recent integration of unoccupied aerial vehicles (UAVs) with LiDAR systems is potentially transformative and offers complementary data for mapping targeted areas with high precision and systematic study of coupled natural and human systems. We report the results of data capture, analysis, and processing of UAV LiDAR data collected in the Maya Lowlands of Chiapas, Mexico in 2019 for a comparative landscape study. Six areas of archaeological settlement and long-term land-use reflecting a diversity of environments, land cover, and archaeological features were studied. These missions were characterized by areas that were variably forested, rugged, or flat, and included pre-Hispanic settlements and agrarian landscapes. Our study confirms that UAV LiDAR systems have great potential for broader application in high-precision archaeological mapping applications. We also conclude that these studies offer an important opportunity for multi-disciplinary collaboration. UAV LiDAR offers high-precision information that is not only useful for mapping archaeological features, but also provides critical information about long-term land use and landscape change in the context of archaeological resources.more » « less
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Empirical methods for estimating tunneling-induced ground movements have been widely adopted in the tunneling industry. The transverse surface settlement profile can be described by a Gaussian curve or a modified Gaussian curve whose maximum value and trough width are related to volume loss. Volume loss in turn is related to soil type, tunnel geometry, and construction techniques. Several empirical equations have been developed based on the Gaussian curve and the assumptions of (1) trough width dependency on tunnel depth and ground condition; and (2) volume loss dependency on the ground type and construction techniques. For Earth Pressure Balance Machine (EPBM) tunneling, a volume loss of 0.5% in granular soils and 1%–2% the soft clay has been assumed in the past as an initial estimate. However, with complete filling and pressurization of both the shield (overcut) gap and the grouted tail gap around the lining, volume losses below 0.1% to 0.2% are being achieved in the alluvial granular and clay soils on current Los Angeles Metro tunneling projects. The LA Metro K Line Crenshaw/LAX transit project, tunneled from 2016 to 2018, has provided an opportunity to acquire and organize data on compatible data management systems, and evaluate the extensive field monitoring data for ground conditions specific to predominately granular soils in Old Alluvium. These data allow for the improvement of current empirical methods and correlations for predicting surface settlement induced by EPBM tunnels. The approximately 1-mi (1.6-km)-long, 20.6-ft (6.5-m)-diameter twin tunnels were excavated by an EPBM in a dense sand layer overlain by a silt/clay layer. The cover-to-diameter ratio was consistently about 2. The settlements and volume losses are observed to be heavily dependent on the face/shield pressures. In general, maintaining continuous pressures can significantly reduce settlements. An equation for estimating the volume loss based on the measured EPBM shield pressures is proposed. This equation can be used with the existing empirical methods to estimate the surface settlement profile transverse to the longitudinal axis of the tunnel.more » « less
