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1. Sex and Gender

   https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-91371-6_1  

   DuBois, L Zachary; Ritz, Stacey A; McCarthy, Margaret M; Kaiser_Trujillo, Anelis (January 2025, Springer Nature Switzerland)
2. Sex and gender essentialism in textbooks

   https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adi1188  

   Donovan, Brian M; Syed, Awais; Arnold, Sophie H; Lee, Dennis; Weindling, Monica; Stuhlsatz, Molly_A M; Riegle-Crumb, Catherine; Cimpian, Andrei (February 2024, Science)
3. Gender/Sex Categories and Gendered Cues in People Perception: The Influence of Gender/Sex Ratio and Gendered Appearance on Group Judgments

   https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2024.42.2.112  

   Alt, Nicholas P; Dayley, Pamala N; Faulkner, Anna G; Johnson, Kerri L (April 2024, Social Cognition)

   Previous findings on people perception show that perceivers are attuned to the social categories of group members, which subsequently influences social judgments. An outstanding question is whether perceivers are also attuned to visual cue variability (e.g., gender typicality). In two studies (n = 165), perceivers viewed 12-person ensembles (500 ms) of varying White men-to-women ratios. Importantly, faces of one gender/sex were morphed to appear either more masculine or more feminine. Consistent with prior work, results indicated that judgments varied by the actual gender/sex ratio. In addition, perceivers' judgments varied as a function of manipulated gender cues. Ensembles composed of masculine, compared to feminine White men, were judged to have more men, higher perceived masculinity, and to be more threatening. Complementary results were found for ensembles composed of feminine, compared to masculine White women. These findings highlight the impact of both social categories and visual phenotypic cue variability on people perception. 

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4. Transgender and cisgender children's essentialist beliefs about sex and gender identity

   https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13115  

   Gülgöz, Selin; Alonso, Daniel J.; Olson, Kristina R.; Gelman, Susan A. (November 2021, Developmental Science)
5. Investigating Conflation of Sex and Gender Language in Student Writing About Genetics

   https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-020-00177-9  

   Stuhlsatz, M.A.M.; Buck Bracey, Z.E.; Donovan, B.M. (December 2020, Science and Education)

   null (Ed.)

   Conflation of sex and gender is implicated in the development of essentialist thinking, which has been linked to the justification of systems of prejudice in modern society. This exploratory study presents findings from a person randomized control trial conducted with 460 students in 8th–10th grade that investigated the extent to which students conflate sex and gender in their writing about genetics. Students were randomly assigned to one of three short readings that either (1) explained the genetics of sex in plants; (2) explained the genetics of sex in humans; or (3) refuted neuro-genetic essentialism, offering instead a social explanation for why women receive fewer PhDs in science, technology, mathematics, and engineering than men. While previous findings from the authors suggest links between the condition students were assigned to and psychological indicators related to essentialist thinking, no work was done to investigate how students’ use of language might implicate cognitive conflation as a possible factor in understanding these results. In this study, student responses to a constructed response writing task given after the reading were analyzed to investigate the use of sex and gender language. Students in all three conditions used both sex and gender language. However, students in the refutational text condition tended to use sex and gender language deliberately in order to explain PhD attainment, while students in the traditional genetics conditions used the terms interchangeably, suggesting subconscious conflation. Students in the genetics of human sex condition were more likely to manifest this conflation than students in the genetics of plant sex condition. Implications for instruction are discussed. 

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