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Over the past three decades the field of pedagogical agents (PAs) has seen significant growth, but no review has specifically focused on the design and use of PAs for K-12 students, despite the fact that an early meta-analysis showed that they receive the most benefits from learning from or with PAs. Our systematic search revealed 112 studies that met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed. Our findings revealed a plethora of studies investigating the use of PAs with K-12 populations and a considerable number of longitudinal studies, both of which the field has long stated did not exist in significant numbers. Our findings contrast long-held findings in the field, further support others, and highlight areas where further experimentation and research synthesis are needed.
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This content will become publicly available on December 1, 2025
Pedagogical agent design for K-12 education: A systematic review
Pedagogical agents (PAs) are increasingly being integrated into educational technologies. Although previous reviews have examined the impact of PAs on learning and learning-related outcomes, it still remains unclear what specific design features, social cues, and other contextual elements of PA implementation can optimize the learning process. These questions are even more prevalent with regards to the K-12 population, as most reviews to date have largely focused on post-secondary learners. To address this gap in the literature, we systematically review empirical studies around the design of PAs for K-12 learners. After reviewing 1374 studies for potential inclusion, we analyzed 44 studies that met our inclusion criteria using Heidig and Clarebout’s (2011) frameworks. Our findings showed that learners had preferences for specific types of PAs. While these preferences were not always associated with increased learning outcomes, there is a lack of research specifically investigating the intersection of perceptions and learning. Our results also showed that pedagogical strategies that are effective for human teachers were effective when used by PAs. We highlight what specific design features instructional designers can use to design PAs for K-12 learners and discuss promising research directions based on the extant work in the field.
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- Award ID(s):
- 2229612
- PAR ID:
- 10591742
- Publisher / Repository:
- Elsevier
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- Computers & Education
- Volume:
- 223
- Issue:
- C
- ISSN:
- 0360-1315
- Page Range / eLocation ID:
- 105165
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
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