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Cryptomarkets—online markets for illegal goods—have revolutionized the illegal drug trade, constituting about 10% of all drug trades and attracting users to a greater variety and more addictive substances than available in offline drug markets. This review introduces the burgeoning area of sociology research on illegal cryptomarkets, particularly in the realm of drug trade. We emphasize the expanding role of illicit online trade and its relevance for understanding broader exchange challenges encountered in all illegal trade settings. Examining the effects of online illegal trade on consumption and supply-side policing, we also discuss the harm and potential benefits of moving drug exchange from offline to online markets. We argue for a network perspective's efficacy in this research domain, emphasizing its relevance in assessing trade and discussion networks, technical innovation, and market evolution and vulnerabilities. Concluding, we outline future research areas, including market culture, failure, and the impact of online illegal trade on stratification.
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This content will become publicly available on July 11, 2026
Historical and contextual variation in daily opioid consumption rates: implications for supply control, service delivery, and research
Background: Illegal opioids can create substantial harms, but the extent depends on multiple factors, including the amount consumed. Objectives: To examine how consumption varies across time and context, with implications for treatment and drug policy. Methods: We searched EBSCOhost and PubMed for literature on individuals: (1) not-in-treatment and purchasing from illegal markets, (2) reporting pre-treatment use at treatment intake, and (3) with opioid use disorder (OUD) receiving medically supplied opioids. A total of 135 articles were deemed relevant. Results: Average consumption intensities vary enormously, from below 100 morphine milligram equivalents (MME) per day for use outside of treatment where prices are high, to ~600 MME in typical illegal markets, and 1,100–1,800 MME per day when supply is free, as in heroin assisted treatment and injectable hydromorphone treatment. MME in methadone programs (190–460) is less than in the traditional British heroin prescribing system (600–1,300). Intensities tended to be higher in recent times, whereas the prices have been lower. Studies during the fentanyl era suggest MMEs per day may be much higher than in the past. Conclusion: The adaptability of consumption has several potential implications. Expansions in supply could have greater effects on quantity consumed than on prevalence. Treatment protocols and overdose prevention strategies may need to adjust for higher baseline consumption. Furthermore, assumptions about health harms from long-term use may need revisiting if they are predicated on lower, historical consumption intensities. These findings are caveated by limitations in reporting of data and variations in methodologies. Hence, greater investments in monitoring consumption intensities are warranted.
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- Award ID(s):
- 2146230
- PAR ID:
- 10639655
- Publisher / Repository:
- Taylor & Francis
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
- ISSN:
- 0095-2990
- Page Range / eLocation ID:
- 1 to 24
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
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