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Geodetic observations of post-seismic deformation due to afterslip and viscoelastic relaxation can be used to infer fault and lithosphere rheologies by combining the observations with mechanical models of post-seismic processes. However, estimating the spatial distributions of rheological parameters remains challenging because it requires solving a nonlinear inverse problem with a high-dimensional parameter space and potentially computationally expensive forward model. Here we introduce an inversion method to estimate spatially varying fault and lithospheric rheological parameters in a mechanical model of post-seismic deformation using geodetic time series. The forward model combines afterslip and viscoelastic relaxation governed by a velocity-strengthening frictional rheology and a power-law Burgers rheology, respectively, and incorporates the mechanical coupling between coseismic slip, afterslip and viscoelastic relaxation. The inversion method estimates spatially varying fault frictional parameters, viscoelastic constitutive parameters and coseismic stress change. We formulate the inverse problem in a Bayesian framework to quantify the uncertainties of the estimated parameters. To solve this problem with reasonable computational costs, we develop an algorithm to estimate the mean and covariance matrix of the posterior probability distribution based on an ensemble Kalman filter. We validate our method through numerical tests using a 2-D forward model and synthetic post-seismic GNSS time-series. The test results suggest that our method can estimate the spatially varying rheological parameters and their uncertainties reasonably well with tolerable computational costs. Our method can also recover spatially and temporally varying afterslip, viscous strain and effective viscosities and can distinguish the contributions of afterslip and viscoelastic relaxation to observed post-seismic deformation. 

Empirical slip-rate- and state-dependent friction laws and linear fracture mechanics constitute popular approaches to explaining earthquakes. However, the physics underlying friction laws remain elusive and fracture mechanics does not specify fault strength at the various conditions relevant to crustal faulting. Here, we introduce a physical constitutive framework that augments the traditional approaches by incorporating the real area of contact as the state variable. The physical model explains the dynamics of slow and fast ruptures on transparent materials, as well as the amount of light transmitted across the interface during laboratory ruptures. The constitutive framework elucidates the origin of empirical friction laws, and the simulated ruptures can be described by linear elastic fracture mechanics. Continuous measurements of the physical state variable or its proxies during seismic cycles emerge as a novel tool for probing natural faults and advancing our understanding of the earthquake phenomenon. 

The empirical rate‐ and state‐dependent friction law is widely used to explain the frictional resistance of rocks. However, the constitutive parameters vary with temperature and sliding velocity, preventing extrapolation of laboratory results to natural conditions. Here, we explain the frictional properties of natural gouge from the San Andreas Fault, Alpine Fault, and the Nankai Trough from room temperature to ∼300°C for a wide range of slip‐rates with constant constitutive parameters by invoking the competition between two healing mechanisms with different thermodynamic properties. A transition from velocity‐strengthening to velocity‐weakening at steady‐state can be attained either by decreasing the slip‐rate or by increasing temperature. Our study provides a framework to understand the physics underlying the slip‐rate and state dependence of friction and the dependence of frictional properties on ambient physical conditions. 

The East Anatolian fault in Turkey exhibits along-strike rupture segmentation, typically resulting in earthquakes with moment magnitude (Mw) up to 7.5 that are confined to individual segments. However, on 6 February 2023, a catastrophic Mw 7.8 earthquake struck near Kahramanmaraş (southeastern Turkey), defying previous expectations by rupturing multiple segments spanning over 300 km and overcoming multiple geometric complexities. We explore the mechanics of successive single- and multi-segment ruptures using numerical models of the seismic cycle calibrated to historical earthquake records and geodetic observations of the 2023 doublet. Our model successfully reproduces the observed historical rupture segmentation and the rare occurrence of multi-segment earthquakes. The segmentation pattern is influenced by variations in long-term slip rate along strike across the kinematically complex fault network between the Arabian and Anatolian plates. Our physics-based seismic cycle simulations shed light on the long-term variability of earthquake size that shapes seismic hazards. 

The frictional properties of faults control the initiation and propagation of earthquakes and the associated hazards. Although the ambient temperature and instantaneous slip velocity controls on friction in isobaric conditions are increasingly well understood, the role of normal stress on steady‐state and transient frictional behaviors remains elusive. The friction coefficient of rocks exhibits a strong dependence on normal stress at typical crustal depths. Furthermore, rapid changes in normal stress cause a direct effect on friction followed by an evolutionary response. Here, we derive a constitutive friction law that consistently explains the yield strength of rocks from atmospheric pressure to gigapascals while capturing the transient behavior following perturbations in normal stress. The model explains the frictional strength of a variety of sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks and the slip‐dependent response upon normal stress steps of Westerly granite bare contact and synthetic gouges made of quartz and a mixture of quartz and smectite. The nonlinear normal stress dependence of the frictional resistance may originate from the distribution of asperities that control the real area of contact. The direct and transient effects may be important for induced seismicity by hydraulic fracturing or for naturally occurring normal stress perturbations within fault zones in the brittle crust. 

Constitutive models of fault friction form the basis of physics-based simulations of seismic activity. A generally accepted framework for the slip-rate and state dependence of friction involves a thermally activated process, whereby the probability of slip along microasperities adheres to an Arrhenius law. This model, which has become widely adopted among experimentalists and theoreticians, predicts a continuous increase of the direct effect with absolute temperature, but is it observed experimentally? Leveraging comprehensive laboratory data across diverse hydrothermal, barometric, and lithological conditions, we demonstrate that, contrary to the classical view, the direct effect for a given deformation mechanism remains largely temperature-independent. Instead, the incremental shifts in the direct effect often coincide with the brittle to semi-brittle transition, across which distinct deformation mechanisms operate. These considerations challenge the validity of the classical model. Realistic constitutive laws for rock failure within the lithosphere must incorporate the contributions of multiple deformation mechanisms within active fault zones. 

The collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates drives tectonic uplift and evolving landscapes over geological time scales. Much of this evolution is accommodated by seismic processes. However, the relationship between long-term geological processes and short-term seismic cycles is challenging to unravel because of their disparate spatial and temporal scales. Here, we investigate the impact of the internal dynamics of the orogenic wedge on the cycle of Himalayan earthquakes, linking structural models with seismic cycle simulations to show how earthquake patterns may have changed over time. Balanced cross-sections with fault-bend folding at different stages of structural evolution show that frontal thrusts in the Himalayas accumulate slip at different rates across the wedge and over time, depending on the architectural layout of the thrust sheet. Along-strike variations in structural evolution along the Himalayan front may lead to lateral and down-dip segmentation of long-term slip rate, affecting the magnitude and recurrence patterns of earthquakes. Spatio-temporal earthquake patterns may shift every ∼0.3-1.3 Myr as the hanging wall evolves, with implications for seismic hazards in the Nepal Himalayas. 

The Russian-Ukrainian conflict spawned a high-intensity war that shattered decades of peace in Europe. The use of drones and social media elevates open-source intelligence as a critical strategic asset. However, information from these sources is sporadic, difficult to confirm, and prone to manipulation. Here, we use open-access spaceborne remote sensing data to probe the damage to infrastructure on and off the frontline at the city, region, and country-wide scales in Ukraine. Nighttime light data and Synthetic Aperture Radar images reveal widespread blackout and unveil the destruction of battleground cities, offering contrasted perspectives on the impact of the conflict. Optical satellite images capture extensive flooding along the Dnipro River in the aftermath of the breach of the Kakhovka dam. Leveraging visible, near-infrared, and microwave satellite data, we bring to light disruption of human activities, havoc in the environment, and the annihilation of entire cities during the protracted conflict. Open-source remote sensing can offer objective information about the nature and extent of devastation during military conflicts.