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Abstract Delivery of agrochemicals into soil presents a challenge, as the active ingredients are often hydrophobic and do not possess adequate soil mobility to reach their target pest. Previously, plant virus nanoparticles have been shown to penetrate soil and deliver agrochemicals for the treatment of plant parasitic nematodes. For example, tobacco mild green mosaic virus (TMGMV) can be functionalized with agrochemicals through bioconjugation, infusion at the coat protein interface, or encapsulation through thermal shapeshifting (rod-to-sphere). There continues to be a need to expand approaches for agrochemical display and delivery with a need for plug-and-play technology to be applicable for multiple nanoparticle platforms and agrochemicals. Toward this goal, we turned toward a bio-specific coupling strategy making use of the biotin-(strept)avidin system. Herein, we conjugated TMGMV with either avidin or biotin using azide-alkyne cycloaddition. The avidin/biotin-functionalized TMGMV nanoparticles were then characterized by gel electrophoresis and electron microscopy to confirm cargo loading and the nanoparticle’s structural integrity. Soil column assays confirmed that soil mobility was maintained upon chemical modification. Ivermectin modified with biotin or streptavidin linkers was then introduced to the TMGMV-avidin/biotin nanoparticles and binding propensity and loading were validated by QCM-D and a competitive ELISA. Finally, the ivermectin-loaded TMGMV nanoparticles were used to treatC. elegansin a gel burrowing assay, demonstrating that either pesticide loading strategy resulted in active TMGMV nanoparticle formulation that significantly reduced the mobility of nematodes, even after passing through soil. In stark contrast, free ivermectin only exhibited efficacy when applied directly to nematodes; the free pesticide was lost in the soil column—highlighting the need for a delivery system. The presented approach provides a facile plug-and-play approach for pesticide loading onto TMGMV nanoparticles. In particular, biotinylated TMGMV with streptavidin-conjugated ivermectin served as the most effective formulation. Importantly this method does not require heat, which contrasts our previous method of thermal reshaping that requires sample and pesticide exposure to temperatures > 96 °C. We envision the bio-specific loading strategy could be extended to other protein or inorganic nanoparticles to advance soil treatment strategies. 

SUMMARY Upon cooling, most rocks acquire a thermoremanent magnetization (TRM); the cooling rate at which this happens not only affects palaeointensity estimates, but also their unblocking temperatures in stepwise thermal demagnetization experiments, which is important, for example, to estimate volcanic emplacement temperatures. Traditional single-domain (SD) theory of magnetic remanence relates relaxation times to blocking temperatures— the blocking temperature is the temperature at which the relaxation time becomes shorter than the experimental timescale—and therefore strictly only applies to remanence acquisition mechanisms at constant temperatures (i.e. viscous remanent magnetizations, VRMs). A theoretical framework to relate (constant) blocking temperatures to (time-varying) cooling rates exists, but this theory has very limited experimental verification—partly due to the difficulty of accurately knowing the cooling rates of geological materials. Here we present an experimental test of this ‘cooling rate effect on blocking temperatures’ through a series of demagnetization experiments of laboratory-induced TRMs with controlled cooling rates. The tested cooling rates span about 1 order of magnitude and are made possible through (1) extremely accurate demagnetization experiments using a low-temperature magnetic properties measurement system (MPMS) and (2) the use of a ‘1-step-only’ stepwise thermal demagnetization protocol where the relaxation process is measured over time. In this way the relaxation time corresponding to the blocking temperature is measured, which can be done to much higher accuracy than measuring the blocking temperature directly as done in traditional stepwise thermal demagnetization experiments. Our experiments confirm that the cooling rate relationship holds to high accuracy for ideal magnetic recorders, as shown for a synthetic weakly interacting SD magnetoferritin sample. A SD-dominated low-Ti titanomagnetite Tiva Canyon Tuff sample, however, showed that natural samples are unlikely to be sufficiently ‘ideal’ to meet the theoretical predictions to high accuracy—the experimental data agrees only approximately with the theoretical predictions, which may potentially affect blocking temperature estimates in stepwise thermal demagnetization experiments. Moreover, we find a strongly enhanced cooling rate effect on palaeointensities for even marginally non-ideal samples (up to 43 per cent increase in pTRM for a halving of the cooling rate). 

SUMMARY Quasi-linear field-dependence of remanence provides the foundation for sedimentary relative palaeointensity studies that have been widely used to understand past geomagnetic field behaviour and to date sedimentary sequences. Flocculation models are often called upon to explain this field dependence and the lower palaeomagnetic recording efficiency of sediments. Several recent studies have demonstrated that magnetic-mineral inclusions embedded within larger non-magnetic host silicates are abundant in sedimentary records, and that they can potentially provide another simple explanation for the quasi-linear field dependence. In order to understand how magnetic inclusion-rich detrital particles acquire sedimentary remanence, we carried out depositional remanent magnetization (DRM) experiments on controlled magnetic inclusion-bearing silicate particles (10–50 μm in size) prepared from gabbro and mid-ocean ridge basalt samples. Deposition experiments confirm that the studied large silicate host particles with magnetic mineral inclusions can acquire a DRM with accurate recording of declination. We observe a silicate size-dependent inclination shallowing, whereby larger silicate grains exhibit less inclination shallowing. The studied sized silicate samples do not have distinct populations of spherical or platy particles, so the observed size-dependence inclination shallowing could be explained by a ‘rolling ball’ model whereby larger silicate particles rotate less after depositional settling. We also observe non-linear field-dependent DRM acquisition in Earth-like magnetic fields with DRM behaviour depending strongly on silicate particle size, which could be explained by variable magnetic moments and silicate sizes. Our results provide direct evidence for a potentially widespread mechanism that could contribute to the observed variable recording efficiency and inclination shallowing of sedimentary remanences.