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            Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) experiments are used to image capacitance and surface potential in a wide variety of samples. The widely used KPFM frequency-shift equation rests on assumptions that are questionable in samples having an appreciable impedance or whose properties evolve on a fast timescale. We present new equations describing the cantilever frequency and dissipation in a KPFM experiment carried out on a sample with an appreciable stationary or time-dependent impedance, such as a photovoltaic film, a battery material, or a mixed electronic-ionic conductors.more » « less
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