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1. Annotation Parasitoid Wasp Venom Transcripts

   https://doi.org/10.1096/fasebj.2021.35.S1.02812  

   Billings, Ryan; Van Stry, Melanie (May 2021, The FASEB Journal)
2. Venom production and secretion in reptiles

   https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.227348  

   Mackessy, Stephen P. (April 2022, Journal of Experimental Biology)

   ABSTRACT The venom glands of reptiles, particularly those of front-fanged advanced snakes, must satisfy conflicting biological demands: rapid synthesis of potentially labile and highly toxic proteins, storage in the gland lumen for long periods, stabilization of the stored secretions, immediate activation of toxins upon deployment and protection of the animal from the toxic effects of its own venom. This dynamic system could serve as a model for the study of a variety of different phenomena involving exocrine gland activation, protein synthesis, stabilization of protein products and secretory mechanisms. However, these studies have been hampered by a lack of a long-term model that can be propagated in the lab (as opposed to whole-animal studies). Numerous attempts have been made to extend the lifetime of venom gland secretory cells, but only recently has an organoid model been shown to have the requisite qualities of recapitulation of the native system, self-propagation and long-term viability (>1 year). A tractable model is now available for myriad cell- and molecular-level studies of venom glands, protein synthesis and secretion. However, venom glands of reptiles are not identical, and many differ very extensively in overall architecture, microanatomy and protein products produced. This Review summarizes the similarities among and differences between venom glands of helodermatid lizards and of rear-fanged and front-fanged snakes, highlighting those areas that are well understood and identifying areas where future studies can fill in significant gaps in knowledge of these ancient, yet fascinating systems. 

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3. Physiological demands and signaling associated with snake venom production and storage illustrated by transcriptional analyses of venom glands

   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-75048-y  

   Perry, Blair W.; Schield, Drew R.; Westfall, Aundrea K.; Mackessy, Stephen P.; Castoe, Todd A. (December 2020, Scientific Reports)

   null (Ed.)

   Abstract Despite the extensive body of research on snake venom, many facets of snake venom systems, such as the physiology and regulation of the venom gland itself, remain virtually unstudied. Here, we use time series gene expression analyses of the rattlesnake venom gland in comparison with several non-venom tissues to characterize physiological and cellular processes associated with venom production and to highlight key distinctions of venom gland cellular and physiological function. We find consistent evidence for activation of stress response pathways in the venom gland, suggesting that mitigation of cellular stress is a crucial component of venom production. Additionally, we demonstrate evidence for an unappreciated degree of cellular and secretory activity in the steady state venom gland relative to other secretory tissues and identify vacuolar ATPases as the likely mechanisms driving acidification of the venom gland lumen during venom production and storage. 

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4. Molecular mechanisms underlying intraspecific variation in snake venom

   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jprot.2018.03.032  

   Amazonas, Diana R.; Portes-Junior, José A.; Nishiyama-Jr, Milton Y.; Nicolau, Carolina A.; Chalkidis, Hipócrates M.; Mourão, Rosa H.V.; Grazziotin, Felipe G.; Rokyta, Darin R.; Gibbs, H. Lisle; Valente, Richard H.; et al (June 2018, Journal of Proteomics)
5. Molecular mechanisms underlying intraspecific variation in snake venom

   Amazonas, DR (January 2018, Journal of proteomics)

   Understanding the molecular mechanisms that underlie snake venom variability provides important clues for understanding how the biological functions of this powerful toxic arsenal evolve. Here we analyzed in detail individual transcripts and venom protein isoforms produced by five specimens of a venomous snake (Bothrops atrox) from two nearby but genetically distinct populations from the Brazilian Amazon rainforest showing functional similarities in venom properties. Individual variation was observed among the venoms of these specimens, but the overall abundance of each general toxin family was conserved both in transcripts and in venom protein levels. However, when expression of independent paralogues was analyzed, remarkable differences were observed within and among each toxin group both between individuals and between populations. Transcripts for functionally essential venom proteins (“housekeeping” proteins) are highly expressed in all specimens and show similar transcription/translation rates. In contrast, other paralogues show lower expression levels and the toxins they code for vary among different individuals. These results provide support for the idea that that expression and translational differences play a greater role in defining adaptive variation in venom phenotypes than does sequence variation in protein coding genes and that convergent adaptive venom phenotypes can be generated through different molecular mechanisms. 

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