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1. Bone tissue engineering techniques, advances, and scaffolds for treatment of bone defects

   https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobme.2020.100248  

   Alonzo, Matthew; Primo, Fabian Alvarez; Anil Kumar, Shweta; Mudloff, Joel A.; Dominguez, Erick; Fregoso, Gisel; Ortiz, Nick; Weiss, William M.; Joddar, Binata. (April 2021, Current opinion in biomedical engineering)

   Edited by Aldo Boccaccini, Himansu Sekhar (Ed.)

   Bone tissue engineering (BTE) aims to develop strategies to regenerate damaged or diseased bone using a combination of cells, growth factors, and biomaterials. This article highlights recent advances in BTE, with particular emphasis on the role of the biomaterials as scaffolding material to heal bone defects. Studies encompass the utilization of bioceramics, composites, and myriad hydrogels that have been fashioned by injection molding, electrospinning, and 3D bioprinting over recent years, with the aim to provide an insight into the progress of BTE along with a commentary on their scope and possibilities to aid future research. The biocompatibility and structural efficacy of some of these biomaterials are also discussed. 

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2. Biomechanically tunable scaffolds for bone tissue regeneration and testbeds of cancer bone metastasis

   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2024.102024  

   Kundu, Krishna; Gaikwad, Hanmant K.; Jaswandkar, Sharad V.; Ravi, Preetham; Vyas, Parth; Hoffmann, Mark R.; Cakir, Deniz; Katti, Dinesh R.; Katti, Kalpana S. (March 2024, Materialia)
3. Mechanical Characterization of Porous Bone-like Scaffolds with Complex Microstructures for Bone Regeneration

   https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12040416  

   Coburn, Brandon; Salary, Roozbeh Ross (April 2025, Bioengineering)

   Janorkar, Amol V; Vozzi, Giovanni (Ed.)

   The patient-specific treatment of bone fractures using porous osteoconductive scaffolds has faced significant clinical challenges due to insufficient mechanical strength and bioactivity. These properties are essential for osteogenesis, bone bridging, and bone regeneration. Therefore, it is crucial to develop and characterize biocompatible, biodegradable, and mechanically robust scaffolds for effective bone regeneration. The objective of this study is to systematically investigate the mechanical performance of SimuBone, a medical-grade biocompatible and biodegradable material, using 10 distinct triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) designs with various internal structures. To assess the material’s tensile properties, tensile structures based on ASTM D638-14 (Design IV) were fabricated, while standard torsion structures were designed and fabricated to evaluate torsional properties. Additionally, this work examined the compressive properties of the 10 TPMS scaffold designs, parametrically designed in the Rhinoceros 3D environment and subsequently fabricated using fused deposition modeling (FDM) additive manufacturing. The FDM fabrication process utilized a microcapillary nozzle (heated to 240 °C) with a diameter of 400 µm and a print speed of 10 mm/s, depositing material on a heated surface maintained at 60 °C. It was observed that SimuBone had a shear modulus of 714.79 ± 11.97 MPa as well as an average yield strength of 44 ± 1.31 MPa. Scaffolds fabricated with horizontal material deposition exhibited the highest tensile modulus (5404.20 ± 192.30 MPa), making them ideal for load-bearing applications. Also, scaffolds with large voids required thicker walls to prevent collapse. The P.W. Hybrid scaffold design demonstrated high vertical stiffness but moderate horizontal stiffness, indicating anisotropic mechanical behavior. The Neovius scaffold design balanced mechanical stiffness and porosity, making it a promising candidate for bone tissue engineering. Overall, the outcomes of this study pave the way for the design and fabrication of scaffolds with optimal properties for the treatment of bone fractures. 

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4. Peak trabecular bone microstructure predicts rate of estrogen-deficiency-induced bone loss in rats

   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2021.115862  

   Li, Yihan; Tseng, Wei-Ju; de Bakker, Chantal M.J.; Zhao, Hongbo; Chung, Rebecca; Liu, X. Sherry (April 2021, Bone)

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5. Evaluation of bone formation on orthopedic implant surfaces using an ex-vivo bone bioreactor system

   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02070-z  

   Dua, Rupak; Jones, Hugh; Noble, Philip C. (December 2021, Scientific Reports)

   Abstract Recent advances in materials and manufacturing processes have allowed the fabrication of intricate implant surfaces to facilitate bony attachment. However, refinement and evaluation of these new design strategies are hindered by the cost and complications of animal studies, particularly during early iterations in the development process. To address this problem, we have previously constructed and validated an ex-vivo bone bioreactor culture system that can maintain the viability of bone samples for an extended period ex-vivo. In this study, we investigated the mineralization of a titanium wire mesh scaffold under both static and dynamic culturing using our ex vivo bioreactor system. Thirty-six cancellous bone cores were harvested from bovine metatarsals at the time of slaughter and divided into five groups under the following conditions: Group 1) Isolated bone cores placed in static culture, Group 2) Unloaded bone cores placed in static culture in contact with a fiber-mesh metallic scaffold, Group 3) Bone cores placed in contact with a fiber-mesh metallic scaffold under the constant pressure of 150 kPa, Group 4) Bone core placed in contact with a fiber-mesh metallic scaffold and exposed to cyclic loading with continuous perfusion flow of media within the ex-vivo culture system and Group 5) Bone core evaluated on Day 0 to serve as a positive control for comparison with all other groups at weeks 4 and 7. Bone samples within Groups 1–4 were incubated for 4 and 7 weeks and then evaluated using histological examination (H&E) and the Live-Dead assay (Life Technologies). Matrix deposits on the metallic scaffolds were examined with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), while the chemical composition of the matrix was measured using energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX). We found that the viability of bone cores was maintained after seven weeks of loading in our ex vivo system. In addition, SEM images revealed crystallite-like structures on the dynamically loaded metal coupons (Group 4), corresponding to the initial stages of mineralization. EDX results further confirmed the presence of carbon at the interface and calcium phosphates in the matrix. We conclude that a bone bioreactor can be used as an alternate tool for in-vivo bone ingrowth studies of new implant surfaces or coatings. 

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