An official website of the United States government
ABSTRACT We explore implications of a range of black hole (BH) seeding prescriptions on the formation of the brightest $$z$$ ≳ 6 quasars in cosmological hydrodynamic simulations. The underlying galaxy formation model is the same as in the IllustrisTNG simulations. Using constrained initial conditions, we study the growth of BHs in rare overdense regions (forming $$\gtrsim 10^{12}\, {\rm M}_{\odot }\,h^{-1}$$ haloes by $$z$$ = 7) using a (9 Mpc h−1)3 simulated volume. BH growth is maximal within haloes that are compact and have a low tidal field. For these haloes, we consider an array of gas-based seeding prescriptions wherein $$M_{\mathrm{seed}}=10^4\!-\!10^6\, {\rm M}_{\odot }\,h^{-1}$$ seeds are inserted in haloes above critical thresholds for halo mass and dense, metal-poor gas mass (defined as $$\tilde{M}_{\mathrm{h}}$$ and $$\tilde{M}_{\mathrm{sf,mp}}$$, respectively, in units of Mseed). We find that a seed model with $$\tilde{M}_{\mathrm{sf,mp}}=5$$ and $$\tilde{M}_{\mathrm{h}}=3000$$ successfully produces a $$z$$ ∼ 6 quasar with $$\sim 10^9\, {\rm M}_{\odot }$$ mass and ∼1047 erg s−1 luminosity. BH mergers play a crucial role at $$z$$ ≳ 9, causing an early boost in BH mass at a time when accretion-driven BH growth is negligible. With more stringent seeding conditions (e.g. $$\tilde{M}_{\mathrm{sf,mp}}=1000$$), the relative paucity of BH seeds results in a much lower merger rate. In this case, $$z$$ ≳ 6 quasars can only be formed if we enhance the maximum allowed BH accretion rates (by factors ≳10) compared to the accretion model used in IllustrisTNG. This can be achieved either by allowing for super-Eddington accretion, or by reducing the radiative efficiency. Our results demonstrate that progenitors of $$z$$ ∼ 6 quasars have distinct BH merger histories for different seeding models, which will be distinguishable with Laser Interferometer Space Antenna observations.
more »
« less
Impact of gas-based seeding on supermassive black hole populations at z ≥ 7
Abstract Deciphering the formation of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) is a key science goal for upcoming observational facilities. In many theoretical channels proposed so far, the seed formation depends crucially on local gas conditions. We systematically characterize the impact of a range of gas-based black hole seeding prescriptions on SMBH populations using cosmological simulations. Seeds of mass Mseed ∼ 103–106 M⊙ h−1 are placed in haloes that exceed critical thresholds for star-forming, metal-poor gas mass and halo mass (defined as $$\tilde{M}_{\mathrm{sf,mp}}$$ and $$\tilde{M}_{\mathrm{h}}$$, respectively, in units of Mseed). We quantify the impact of these parameters on the properties of z ≥ 7 SMBHs. Lower seed masses produce higher black hole merger rates (by factors of ∼10 and ∼1000 at z ∼ 7 and z ∼ 15, respectively). For fixed seed mass, we find that $$\tilde{M}_{\mathrm{h}}$$ has the strongest impact on the black hole population at high redshift (z ≳ 15, where a factor of 10 increase in $$\tilde{M}_{\mathrm{h}}$$ suppresses merger rates by ≳ 100). At lower redshift (z ≲ 15), we find that $$\tilde{M}_{\mathrm{sf,mp}}$$ has a larger impact on the black hole population. Increasing $$\tilde{M}_{\mathrm{sf,mp}}$$ from 5–150 suppresses the merger rates by factors of ∼8 at z ∼ 7–15. This suggests that the seeding criteria explored here could leave distinct imprints on LISA merger rates. In contrast, AGN luminosity functions are much less sensitive to seeding criteria, varying by factors ≲ 2 − 3 within our models. Such variations will be challenging to probe even with future sensitive instruments such as Lynx or JWST. Our study provides a useful benchmark for development of seed models for large-volume cosmological simulations.
more »
« less
- PAR ID:
- 10285756
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- ISSN:
- 0035-8711
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
More Like this
-
-
ABSTRACT A major open question in astrophysics is the mechanisms by which massive black holes (BHs) form in the early Universe, which pose constraints on seeding models. We study BH formation and evolution in a flexible model combining the cosmological IllustrisTNG (TNG) simulations with semi-analytic modelling in post-processing. We identify our TNG model hosts based on various criteria including a minimum gas mass of $10^7$$–$$10^9$${\rm M}_{\odot }$$, total host mass of $$10^{8.5}$$–$$10^{10.5}$${\rm M}_{\odot }$$, and a maximum gas metallicity of 0.01–0.1 $$\mathrm{Z}_{\odot }$$. Each potential host is assigned a BH seed with a probability of 0.01–1. The populations follow the TNG galaxy merger tree. This approach improves upon the predictive power of the simple TNG BH seeding prescription, narrowing down plausible seeding parameter spaces, and it is readily adaptable to other cosmological simulations. Several model realizations predict $$z\lesssim 4$$ BH mass densities that are consistent with empirical data as well as the TNG BHs. However, high-redshift BH number densities can differ by factors of $$\sim$$ 10 to $$\gtrsim$$ 100 between seeding parameters. In most model realizations, $$\lesssim 10^5$${\rm M}_{\odot }$$ BHs substantially outnumber heavier BHs at high redshifts. Mergers between such BHs are prime targets for gravitational-wave detection with Laser Interferometer Space Antenna. The $z=0$ BH mass densities in most realizations of the model agree well with observations, but our strictest seeding criteria fail at high redshift. Our findings strongly motivate the need for better empirical constraints on high-z BHs, and they underscore the significance of recent active galactic nucleus discoveries with JWST.more » « less
-
ABSTRACT Direct collapse black holes (BHs) are promising candidates for producing massive z ≳ 6 quasars, but their formation requires fine-tuned conditions. In this work, we use cosmological zoom simulations to study systematically the impact of requiring: (1) low gas angular momentum (spin), and (2) a minimum incident Lyman–Werner (LW) flux in order to form BH seeds. We probe the formation of seeds (with initial masses of $$M_{\rm seed} \sim 10^4\!-\!10^6\, \mathrm{M}_{\odot }\, h^{-1})$$ in haloes with a total mass >3000 × Mseed and a dense, metal-poor gas mass >5 × Mseed. Within this framework, we find that the seed-forming haloes have a prior history of star formation and metal enrichment, but they also contain pockets of dense, metal-poor gas. When seeding is further restricted to haloes with low gas spins, the number of seeds formed is suppressed by factors of ∼6 compared to the baseline model, regardless of the seed mass. Seed formation is much more strongly impacted if the dense, metal-poor gas is required to have a critical LW flux (Jcrit). Even for Jcrit values as low as 50J21, no $$8\times 10^{5}~\mathrm{M}_{\odot }\, h^{-1}$$ seeds are formed. While lower mass ($$1.25\times 10^{4},1\times 10^{5}~\mathrm{M}_{\odot }\, h^{-1}$$) seeds do form, they are strongly suppressed (by factors of ∼10–100) compared to the baseline model at gas mass resolutions of $$\sim 10^4~\mathrm{M}_{\odot }\, h^{-1}$$ (with even stronger suppression at higher resolutions). As a result, BH merger rates are also similarly suppressed. Since early BH growth is dominated by mergers in our models, none of the seeds are able to grow to the supermassive regime ($$\gtrsim 10^6~\mathrm{M}_{\odot }\, h^{-1}$$) by z = 7. Our results hint that producing the bulk of the z ≳ 6 supermassive BH population may require alternate seeding scenarios that do not depend on the LW flux, early BH growth dominated by rapid or super-Eddington accretion, or a combination of these possibilities.more » « less
-
ABSTRACT The physical origin of the seeds of supermassive black holes (SMBHs), with postulated initial masses ranging from ∼105 M⊙ to as low as ∼102 M⊙, is currently unknown. Most existing cosmological hydrodynamic simulations adopt very simple, ad hoc prescriptions for BH seeding and seed at unphysically high masses ∼105–106 M⊙. In this work, we introduce a novel sub-grid BH seeding model for cosmological simulations that is directly calibrated to high-resolution zoom simulations that explicitly resolve ∼103 M⊙ seeds forming within haloes with pristine, dense gas. We trace the BH growth along galaxy merger trees until their descendants reach masses of ∼104 or 105 M⊙. The results are used to build a new stochastic seeding model that directly seeds these descendants in lower resolution versions of our zoom region. Remarkably, we find that by seeding the descendants simply based on total galaxy mass, redshift and an environmental richness parameter, we can reproduce the results of the detailed gas-based seeding model. The baryonic properties of the host galaxies are well reproduced by the mass-based seeding criterion. The redshift-dependence of the mass-based criterion captures the combined influence of halo growth, dense gas formation, and metal enrichment on the formation of ∼103 M⊙ seeds. The environment-based seeding criterion seeds the descendants in rich environments with higher numbers of neighbouring galaxies. This accounts for the impact of unresolved merger dominated growth of BHs, which produces faster growth of descendants in richer environments with more extensive BH merger history. Our new seed model will be useful for representing a variety of low-mass seeding channels within next-generation larger volume uniform cosmological simulations.more » « less
-
ABSTRACT The origin of the ‘seeds’ of supermassive black holes (BHs) continues to be a puzzle, as it is currently unclear if the imprints of early seed formation could survive to today. We examine the signatures of seeding in the local Universe using five $$[18~\mathrm{Mpc}]^3$$BRAHMA simulation boxes run to $z=0$. They initialize $$1.5\times 10^5~\rm {M}_{\odot }$$ BHs using different seeding models. The first four boxes initialize BHs as heavy seeds using criteria that depend on dense and metal-poor gas, Lyman–Werner radiation, gas spin, and environmental richness. The fifth box initializes BHs as descendants of lower mass seeds ($$\sim 10^3~\rm {M}_{\odot }$$) using a new stochastic seed model built in our previous work. In our simulations, we find that the abundances and properties of $$\sim 10^5-10^6~\rm {M}_{\odot }$$ local BHs hosted in $$M_*\lesssim 10^{9}~\rm {M}_{\odot }$$ dwarf galaxies, are sensitive to the assumed seeding criteria. This is for two reasons: (1) there is a substantial population of local $$\sim 10^5~\rm {M}_{\odot }$$ BHs that are ungrown relics of early seeds from $$z\sim 5-10$$; (2) BH growth up to $$\sim 10^6~\rm {M}_{\odot }$$ is dominated by mergers in our simulations all the way down to $$z\sim 0$$. As the contribution from gas accretion increases, the signatures of seeding start to weaken in more massive $$\gtrsim 10^6~\rm {M}_{\odot }$$ BHs, and they are erased for $$\gtrsim 10^7~\rm {M}_{\odot }$$ BHs. The different seed models explored here predict abundances of local $$\sim 10^6~\rm {M}_{\odot }$$ BHs ranging from $$\sim 0.01-0.05~\mathrm{Mpc}^{-3}$$ with occupation fractions of $$\sim 20-100~{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$$ for $$M_*\sim 10^{9}~\rm {M}_{\odot }$$ galaxies. These results highlight the potential for placing constraints on seeding models using local $$\sim 10^5-10^6~\rm {M}_{\odot }$$ BHs hosted in dwarf galaxies. Since merger dynamics and accretion physics impact the persistence of seeding signatures, and both high and low mass seed models can produce similar local BH populations, disentangling their roles will require combining high and low redshift constraints.more » « less
- Free Publicly Accessible Full Text
-
Accepted Manuscript1.0
- Journal Article:
- https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stab2204
