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1. RTD Light Emission around 1550 nm with IQE up to 6% at 300 K

   https://doi.org/10.1109/DRC50226.2020.9135175  

   Brown, E. R. ; Zhang, W-D. ; Fakhimi, P. ; Growden, T. A. ; Berger, P.R. ( June 2020 , IEEE Device Research Conference (DRC), Columbus, OH (June 22-24, 2020))

   Resonant tunneling diodes (RTDs) have come full-circle in the past 10 years after their demonstration in the early 1990s as the fastest room-temperature semiconductor oscillator, displaying experimental results up to 712 GHz and fmax values exceeding 1.0 THz [1]. Now the RTD is once again the preeminent electronic oscillator above 1.0 THz and is being implemented as a coherent source [2] and a self-oscillating mixer [3], amongst other applications. This paper concerns RTD electroluminescence – an effect that has been studied very little in the past 30+ years of RTD development, and not at room temperature. We present experiments and modeling of an n-type In0.53Ga0.47As/AlAs double-barrier RTD operating as a cross-gap light emitter at ~300K. The MBE-growth stack is shown in Fig. 1(a). A 15-μm-diam-mesa device was defined by standard planar processing including a top annular ohmic contact with a 5-μm-diam pinhole in the center to couple out enough of the internal emission for accurate free-space power measurements [4]. The emission spectra have the behavior displayed in Fig. 1(b), parameterized by bias voltage (VB). The long wavelength emission edge is at  = 1684 nm - close to the In0.53Ga0.47As bandgap energy of Ug ≈ 0.75 eV at 300 K. The spectral peaks for VB = 2.8 and 3.0 V both occur around  = 1550 nm (h = 0.75 eV), so blue-shifted relative to the peak of the “ideal”, bulk InGaAs emission spectrum shown in Fig. 1(b) [5]. These results are consistent with the model displayed in Fig. 1(c), whereby the broad emission peak is attributed to the radiative recombination between electrons accumulated on the emitter side, and holes generated on the emitter side by interband tunneling with current density Jinter. The blue-shifted main peak is attributed to the quantum-size effect on the emitter side, which creates a radiative recombination rate RN,2 comparable to the band-edge cross-gap rate RN,1. Further support for this model is provided by the shorter wavelength and weaker emission peak shown in Fig. 1(b) around = 1148 nm. Our quantum mechanical calculations attribute this to radiative recombination RR,3 in the RTD quantum well between the electron ground-state level E1,e, and the hole level E1,h. To further test the model and estimate quantum efficiencies, we conducted optical power measurements using a large-area Ge photodiode located ≈3 mm away from the RTD pinhole, and having spectral response between 800 and 1800 nm with a peak responsivity of ≈0.85 A/W at  =1550 nm. Simultaneous I-V and L-V plots were obtained and are plotted in Fig. 2(a) with positive bias on the top contact (emitter on the bottom). The I-V curve displays a pronounced NDR region having a current peak-to-valley current ratio of 10.7 (typical for In0.53Ga0.47As RTDs). The external quantum efficiency (EQE) was calculated from EQE = e∙IP/(∙IE∙h) where IP is the photodiode dc current and IE the RTD current. The plot of EQE is shown in Fig. 2(b) where we see a very rapid rise with VB, but a maximum value (at VB= 3.0 V) of only ≈2×10-5. To extract the internal quantum efficiency (IQE), we use the expression EQE= c ∙i ∙r ≡ c∙IQE where ci, and r are the optical-coupling, electrical-injection, and radiative recombination efficiencies, respectively [6]. Our separate optical calculations yield c≈3.4×10-4 (limited primarily by the small pinhole) from which we obtain the curve of IQE plotted in Fig. 2(b) (right-hand scale). The maximum value of IQE (again at VB = 3.0 V) is 6.0%. From the implicit definition of IQE in terms of i and r given above, and the fact that the recombination efficiency in In0.53Ga0.47As is likely limited by Auger scattering, this result for IQE suggests that i might be significantly high. To estimate i, we have used the experimental total current of Fig. 2(a), the Kane two-band model of interband tunneling [7] computed in conjunction with a solution to Poisson’s equation across the entire structure, and a rate-equation model of Auger recombination on the emitter side [6] assuming a free-electron density of 2×1018 cm3. We focus on the high-bias regime above VB = 2.5 V of Fig. 2(a) where most of the interband tunneling should occur in the depletion region on the collector side [Jinter,2 in Fig. 1(c)]. And because of the high-quality of the InGaAs/AlAs heterostructure (very few traps or deep levels), most of the holes should reach the emitter side by some combination of drift, diffusion, and tunneling through the valence-band double barriers (Type-I offset) between InGaAs and AlAs. The computed interband current density Jinter is shown in Fig. 3(a) along with the total current density Jtot. At the maximum Jinter (at VB=3.0 V) of 7.4×102 A/cm2, we get i = Jinter/Jtot = 0.18, which is surprisingly high considering there is no p-type doping in the device. When combined with the Auger-limited r of 0.41 and c ≈ 3.4×10-4, we find a model value of IQE = 7.4% in good agreement with experiment. This leads to the model values for EQE plotted in Fig. 2(b) - also in good agreement with experiment. Finally, we address the high Jinter and consider a possible universal nature of the light-emission mechanism. Fig. 3(b) shows the tunneling probability T according to the Kane two-band model in the three materials, In0.53Ga0.47As, GaAs, and GaN, following our observation of a similar electroluminescence mechanism in GaN/AlN RTDs (due to strong polarization field of wurtzite structures) [8]. The expression is Tinter = (2/9)∙exp[(-2 ∙Ug 2 ∙me)/(2h∙P∙E)], where Ug is the bandgap energy, P is the valence-to-conduction-band momentum matrix element, and E is the electric field. Values for the highest calculated internal E fields for the InGaAs and GaN are also shown, indicating that Tinter in those structures approaches values of ~10-5. As shown, a GaAs RTD would require an internal field of ~6×105 V/cm, which is rarely realized in standard GaAs RTDs, perhaps explaining why there have been few if any reports of room-temperature electroluminescence in the GaAs devices. [1] E.R. Brown,et al., Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 58, 2291, 1991. [5] S. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd Ed. 12.2.1 (Wiley, 1981). [2] M. Feiginov et al., Appl. Phys. Lett., 99, 233506, 2011. [6] L. Coldren, Diode Lasers and Photonic Integrated Circuits, (Wiley, 1995). [3] Y. Nishida et al., Nature Sci. Reports, 9, 18125, 2019. [7] E.O. Kane, J. of Appl. Phy 32, 83 (1961). [4] P. Fakhimi, et al., 2019 DRC Conference Digest. [8] T. Growden, et al., Nature Light: Science & Applications 7, 17150 (2018). [5] S. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd Ed. 12.2.1 (Wiley, 1981). [6] L. Coldren, Diode Lasers and Photonic Integrated Circuits, (Wiley, 1995). [7] E.O. Kane, J. of Appl. Phy 32, 83 (1961). [8] T. Growden, et al., Nature Light: Science & Applications 7, 17150 (2018). 

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2. Tomographic X-ray particle tracking velocimetry: Proof-of-concept in a creeping flow

   https://doi.org/10.1007/s00348-021-03362-w  

   Mäkiharju, Simo A. ; Dewanckele, Jan ; Boone, Marijn ; Wagner, Christian ; Griesser, Andreas ( December 2021 , Experiments in Fluids)

   We investigate the feasibility of in-laboratory tomographic X-ray particle tracking velocimetry (TXPTV) and consider creeping flows with nearly density matched flow tracers. Specifically, in these proof-of-concept experiments we examined a Poiseuille flow, flow through porous media and a multiphase flow with a Taylor bubble. For a full 360$$^\circ$$${}^{\circ }$computed tomography (CT) scan we show that the specially selected 60 micron tracer particles could be imaged in less than 3 seconds with a signal-to-noise ratio between the tracers and the fluid of 2.5, sufficient to achieve proper volumetric segmentation at each time step. In the pipe flow, continuous Lagrangian particle trajectories were obtained, after which all the standard techniques used for PTV or PIV (taken at visible wave lengths) could also be employed for TXPTV data. And, with TXPTV we can examine flows inaccessible with visible wave lengths due to opaque media or numerous refractive interfaces. In the case of opaque porous media we were able to observe material accumulation and pore clogging, and for flow with Taylor bubble we can trace the particles and hence obtain velocities in the liquid film between the wall and bubble, with thickness of liquid film itself also simultaneously obtained from the volumetric reconstruction after segmentation. While improvements in scan speed are anticipated due to continuing improvements in CT system components, we show that for the flows examined even the presently available CT systems could yield quantitative flow data with the primary limitation being the quality of available flow tracers.

    

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3. Densest Subgraph: Supermodularity, Iterative Peeling, and Flow

   https://doi.org/10.1137/1.9781611977073.64  

   Chekuri, Chandra ; Quanrud, Kent ; Torres, Manuel ( January 2022 , Proceedings of the 2022 ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms)

   The densest subgraph problem in a graph (\dsg), in the simplest form, is the following. Given an undirected graph $G=(V,E)$ find a subset $S \subseteq V$ of vertices that maximizes the ratio $|E(S)|/|S|$ where $E(S)$ is the set of edges with both endpoints in $S$. \dsg and several of its variants are well-studied in theory and practice and have many applications in data mining and network analysis. In this paper we study fast algorithms and structural aspects of \dsg via the lens of \emph{supermodularity}. For this we consider the densest supermodular subset problem (\dssp): given a non-negative supermodular function $f: 2^V \rightarrow \mathbb{R}_+$, maximize $f(S)/|S|$. For \dsg we describe a simple flow-based algorithm that outputs a $(1-\eps)$-approximation in deterministic $\tilde{O}(m/\eps)$ time where $m$ is the number of edges. Our algorithm is the first to have a near-linear dependence on $m$ and $1/\eps$ and improves previous methods based on an LP relaxation. It generalizes to hypergraphs, and also yields a faster algorithm for directed \dsg. Greedy peeling algorithms have been very popular for \dsg and several variants due to their efficiency, empirical performance, and worst-case approximation guarantees. We describe a simple peeling algorithm for \dssp and analyze its approximation guarantee in a fashion that unifies several existing results. Boob et al.\ \cite{bgpstww-20} developed an \emph{iterative} peeling algorithm for \dsg which appears to work very well in practice, and made a conjecture about its convergence to optimality. We affirmatively answer their conjecture, and in fact prove that a natural generalization of their algorithm converges to a $(1-\eps)$-approximation for \emph{any} supermodular function $f$; the key to our proof is to consider an LP formulation that is derived via the \Lovasz extension of a supermodular function. For \dsg the bound on the number of iterations we prove is $O(\frac{\Delta \ln |V|}{\lambda^*}\cdot \frac{1}{\eps^2})$ where $\Delta$ is the maximum degree and $\lambda^*$ is the optimum value. Our work suggests that iterative peeling can be an effective heuristic for several objectives considered in the literature. Finally, we show that the $2$-approximation for densest-at-least-$k$ subgraph \cite{ks-09} extends to the supermodular setting. We also give a unified analysis of the peeling algorithm for this problem, and via this analysis derive an approximation guarantee for a generalization of \dssp to maximize $f(S)/g(|S|)$ for a concave function $g$. 

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4. Scale-up of high-pressure F-T synthesis in 3D printed stainless steel microchannel microreactors: Experiments and modeling

   https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2021.09.038  

   NafeezuddinMohammad, ChiemekaChukwudoro ( January 2021 , Catalysis today)

   M.A. Bañares E. Groppo, PhD (Ed.)

   Scale-up of Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) synthesis using microreactors is very important for a paradigm shift in the production of fuels and chemicals. The scalability of microreactors for F-T Synthesis was experimentally evaluated using 3D printed stainless steel microreactors, containing seven microchannels of dimensions 1000 µm × 1000 µm × 5cms. Mesoporous silica (KIT-6), with high surface area, containing ordered mesoporous structure was used to incorporate 10% cobalt and 5% ruthenium using a one-pot hydrothermal method. Bimetallic Co-Ru-KIT-6 catalyst was used for scale-up of F-T Synthesis. The performance of the catalysts was evaluated and examined for three different scale-up configurations (stand-alone, two, and four microreactors assembled in parallel) at both atmospheric pressure and 20 bar at F-T operating temperature of 240 °C using a syngas molar ratio (H2:CO) of 2. All three configurations of microreactors yielded not only comparable CO conversion (85.6–88.4%) and methane selectivity (~14%) but also similar selectivity towards lower gaseous hydrocarbons like ethane, propane, and butane (6.23–9.4%) observed in atmospheric F-T Synthesis. The overall selectivity to higher hydrocarbons, C5 + is in the range of 75–82% at 20 bars. A CFD model was used to investigate the effect of different design features and numbering up approaches on the performance of the microchannel reactor. The effect of the reactor inlet, the mixing internals and the channel designs on the dead zone %, the quality index factor, the cooling requirement and the maximum dimensionless temperature within the microreactor were quantified. There is no significant effect of increasing the channel width on the microreactor performance and operation of the microchannel reactor at lower Nusselt number that results in higher CO conversion. Increasing the channel width reduced the maximum temperature exhibited in the channel. Finally, the effect of increasing the y/x stacking ratio, i.e. having more reactor units in parallel compared to series, was investigated. Increasing the y/x ratio increased the cooling requirement and the maximum dimensionless temperature increase within the unit decreased the productivity. To minimize the productivity losses, numbering up in series is the better approach; however further analysis must be done to delineate heat removal requirements. 

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5. Visualization of Internal Flow Dynamics in Counterflow Atomizers Using X-Ray Diagnostics and Laser Shadowgraphy

   Hoxie, A. ; Srinivasan, V. ; Johnson, E. ; Kastengren, A. ( May 2022 , ILASS-Americas 32nd Annual Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems)

   Experiments were carried out to observe the flow inside counterflow atomizers over a range of operating conditions and fluid properties. Liquids used were water and propylene glycol, while the gas was either air or helium. Liquid flow rates ranged from 10 ml/min to 40 ml/min, with gas liquid ratio (GLR) ranging from 0.1 to 0.6. The primary experiments used the 7-BM line of the Advanced Photon Source in Argonne National Laboratories with a 2.6 mm atomizer produced from (Poly)Ethyl-Ether-Ketone (PEEK). The X-Ray beam was operated in phase contrast mode, leading to interference patterns near the gas-liquid interface and enabling a qualitative understanding of the flow structure. Complementary optical work applied laser shadowgraphy to a 1 mm orifice atomizer constructed with quartz capillary tubing. A diffuse pulsed Nd:YAG laser backlight captured instantaneous gas-liquid interface positions in the internal flow. With both techniques, two distinct flow behaviors are observed corresponding to low and high GLR values. At low GLR, the inertia of the injected gas is insufficient to penetrate the liquid downflow. The gas stream entering the mixing chamber in the upstream direction is immediately deflected by the denser liquid and enters the discharge tube around a central liquid jet, which is sheared and accelerated by the surrounding gas, leading to breakup. A distinct frequency of jet breakup is observed inside the discharge tube, with the liquid jet oscillating and fragmenting against the walls. The situation at high GLR is quite different, however, as the incoming gas stream asymmetrically penetrates upstream into the mixing chamber, taking the form of a high-speed jet confined along one wall, and displaying a flapping instability as it encounters the liquid flowing downstream. This flapping causes violent mixing, resulting in a highly disturbed interface, along with the generation of liquid ligaments and gas bubbles. This two-phase mixture enters the discharge tube with no liquid jet formation evident for this case. The transition between these two regimes is explored by changing the liquid viscosity and gas molar mass, and weak sensitivity to fluid properties is observed. Further, quantitative image analysis techniques applied to the low and high GLR cases allow extraction of the frequencies of the liquid jet in the discharge tube at low GLR, as well as the flapping mode at high GLR. 

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