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1. Towards Transferrable Personalized Student Models in Educational Games

   Samuel Spaulding, Jocelyn Shen (May 2021, Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and MultiAgent Systems (AAMAS '21))

   null (Ed.)

   To help facilitate play and learning, game-based educational activities often feature a computational agent as a co-player. Personalizing this agent's behavior to the student player is an active area of research, and prior work has demonstrated the benefits of personalized educational interaction across a variety of domains. A critical research challenge for personalized educational agents is real-time student modeling. Most student models are designed for and trained on only a single task, which limits the variety, flexibility, and efficiency of student player model learning. In this paper we present a research project applying transfer learning methods to student player models over different educational tasks, studying the effects of an algorithmic "multi-task personalization" approach on the accuracy and data efficiency of student model learning. We describe a unified robotic game system for studying multi-task personalization over two different educational games, each emphasizing early language and literacy skills such as rhyming and spelling. We present a flexible Gaussian Process-based approach for rapidly learning student models from interactive play in each game, and a method for transferring each game's learned student model to the other via a novel instance-weighting protocol based on task similarity. We present results from a simulation-based investigation of the impact of multi-task personalization, establishing the core viability and benefits of transferrable student models and outlining new questions for future in-person research. 

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2. Lifelong Personalization via Gaussian Process Modeling for Long-Term HRI

   https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2021.683066  

   Spaulding, Samuel; Shen, Jocelyn; Park, Hae Won; Breazeal, Cynthia (June 2021, Frontiers in Robotics and AI)

   null (Ed.)

   Across a wide variety of domains, artificial agents that can adapt and personalize to users have potential to improve and transform how social services are provided. Because of the need for personalized interaction data to drive this process, long-term (or longitudinal) interactions between users and agents, which unfold over a series of distinct interaction sessions, have attracted substantial research interest. In recognition of the expanded scope and structure of a long-term interaction, researchers are also adjusting the personalization models and algorithms used, orienting toward “continual learning” methods, which do not assume a stationary modeling target and explicitly account for the temporal context of training data. In parallel, researchers have also studied the effect of “multitask personalization,” an approach in which an agent interacts with users over multiple different tasks contexts throughout the course of a long-term interaction and learns personalized models of a user that are transferrable across these tasks. In this paper, we unite these two paradigms under the framework of “Lifelong Personalization,” analyzing the effect of multitask personalization applied to dynamic, non-stationary targets. We extend the multi-task personalization approach to the more complex and realistic scenario of modeling dynamic learners over time, focusing in particular on interactive scenarios in which the modeling agent plays an active role in teaching the student whose knowledge the agent is simultaneously attempting to model. Inspired by the way in which agents use active learning to select new training data based on domain context, we augment a Gaussian Process-based multitask personalization model with a mechanism to actively and continually manage its own training data, allowing a modeling agent to remove or reduce the weight of observed data from its training set, based on interactive context cues. We evaluate this method in a series of simulation experiments comparing different approaches to continual and multitask learning on simulated student data. We expect this method to substantially improve learning in Gaussian Process models in dynamic domains, establishing Gaussian Processes as another flexible modeling tool for Long-term Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) Studies. 

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3. Wearable Learning: Multiplayer Embodied Games for Math

   https://doi.org/10.1145/3116595.3116637  

   Arroyo, Ivon; Micciollo, Matthew; Casano, Jonathan; Ottmar, Erin; Hulse, Taylyn; Rodrigo, Ma. Mercedes (January 2017, Proceedings of the Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play - CHI PLAY '17)

   We present a new technology-based paradigm to support embodied mathematics educational games, using wearable devices in the form of SmartPhones and SmartWatches for math learning, for full classes of students in formal in- school education settings. The Wearable Learning Games Engine is web based infrastructure that enables students to carry one mobile device per child, as they embark on math team-based activities that require physical engagement with the environment. These Wearable Tutors serve as guides and assistants while students manipulate, measure, estimate, discern, discard and find mathematical objects that satisfy specified constraints. Multi-player math games that use this infrastructure have yielded both cognitive and affective benefits. Beyond math game play, the Wearable Games Engine Authoring Tool enables students to create games themselves for other students to play; in this process, students engage in computational thinking and learn about finite-state machines. We present the infrastructure, games, and results for a series of experiments on both game play and game creation. 

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4. Modeling Player Engagement with Bayesian Hierarchical Models

   Sawyer, R.; Rowe, J.; Azevedo, R.; Lester, J. (January 2018, Proceedings of the Fourteenth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment)

   Modeling player engagement is a key challenge in games. However, the gameplay signatures of engaged players can be highly context-sensitive, varying based on where the game is used or what population of players is using it. Traditionally, models of player engagement are investigated in a particular context, and it is unclear how effectively these models generalize to other settings and populations. In this work, we investigate a Bayesian hierarchical linear model for multi-task learning to devise a model of player engagement from a pair of datasets that were gathered in two complementary contexts: a Classroom Study with middle school students and a Laboratory Study with undergraduate students. Both groups of players used similar versions of Crystal Island, an educational interactive narrative game for science learning. Results indicate that the Bayesian hierarchical model outperforms both pooled and context-specific models in cross-validation measures of predicting player motivation from in-game behaviors, particularly for the smaller Classroom Study group. Further, we find that the posterior distributions of model parameters indicate that the coefficient for a measure of gameplay performance significantly differs between groups. Drawing upon their capacity to share information across groups, hierarchical Bayesian methods provide an effective approach for modeling player engagement with data from similar, but different, contexts. 

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5. A Social Robot System for Modeling Children's Word Pronunciation

   Samuel Spaulding, Huili Chen (July 2018, autonomous agents and multi agent systems 2018)

   Autonomous educational social robots can be used to help promote literacy skills in young children. Such robots, which emulate the emotive, perceptual, and empathic abilities of human teachers, are capable of replicating some of the benefits of one-on-one tutoring from human teachers, in part by leveraging individual student’s behavior and task performance data to infer sophisticated models of their knowledge. These student models are then used to provide personalized educational experiences by, for example, determining the optimal sequencing of curricular material. In this paper, we introduce an integrated system for autonomously analyzing and assessing children’s speech and pronunciation in the context of an interactive word game between a social robot and a child. We present a novel game environment and its computational formulation, an integrated pipeline for capturing and analyzing children’s speech in real-time, and an autonomous robot that models children’s word pronunciation via Gaussian Process Regression (GPR), augmented with an Active Learning protocol that informs the robot’s behavior. We show that the system is capable of autonomously assessing children’s pronunciation ability, with ground truth determined by a post-experiment evaluation by human raters. We also compare phoneme- and word-level GPR models and discuss trade-offs of each approach in modeling children’s pronunciation. Finally, we describe and analyze a pipeline for automatic analysis of children’s speech and pronunciation, including an evaluation of Speech Ace as a tool for future development of autonomous, speech-based language tutors. 

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