An official website of the United States government
Monitoring the frictional behavior of rock discontinuities is essential for the identification of potential natural hazards caused by mechanical instability. Active seismic monitoring of changes in transmitted and/or reflected compressional (P) and shear (S) waves has been used as a non-destructive method to assess the degree of damage inside rock and to monitor slip along a discontinuity. The objective of this study is to explore the geophysical response of a saturated rock joint undergoing shear. Laboratory shear tests are conducted on prismatic Indiana limestone specimens. Induced tension fractures resulted in specimens composed of two blocks (152.4 mm 127.0 mm 50.8 mm) with rough contact surfaces. Direct shear experiments were performed inside a metal confinement chamber under an effective normal stress of 2 MPa on water-saturated specimens. During the experiments, the chamber pressure, the total normal load, the shear load and the slip displacement were monitored. During the tests, continuous pulses of P- and S-waves were transmitted through the specimen and the amplitudes of the transmitted and reflected waves were recorded. The paper provides results of the mechanical and geophysical response of saturated joints and compares them with those obtained from similar, but dry, joints. For dry joints, both transmitted and reflected P- and S-waves show a distinct peak wave amplitude prior to shear failure. However, for saturated joints, a distinct peak in amplitude is only observed in both transmitted and reflected S-waves. Transmitted and reflected P-waves, propagated through saturated rock, displayed a continuous decrease and increase in amplitude, respectively, but had a sudden change in the rate of amplitude change that can be taken as a seismic precursor to joint shear failure.
more »
« less
Transmitted, Reflected, and Converted Modes of Seismic Precursors to Shear Failure of Rock Discontinuities
The failure of rock along pre-existing discontinuities is a major concern when building structures on or in rock. A goal is to develop methodologies to identify signatures of imminent shear failure along discontinuities to enable implementation of measures to prevent the collapse of a structure. Previous studies identified precursory seismic signatures of shear failure along rock discontinuities in transmitted and reflected signals. Here, laboratory direct shear experiments were conducted on idealized saw-tooth discontinuities in gypsum to determine the differences or similarities in precursors observed in transmitted, reflected and converted elastic waves. Digital Image Correlation (DIC) was used to quantify the vertical and horizontal displacements along the discontinuity during shearing to relate the location and magnitude of slip with the measured wave amplitudes. Results from the experiments showed that seismic precursors to failure appeared as maxima in the transmitted wave amplitude and conversely as minima in the reflected amplitudes. Converted waves (S to P & P to S) were also detected and their amplitudes reached a maximum prior to shear failure. DIC results showed that slip occurred first at the top of the specimen, where the load was applied, and then progressed along the joint as the shear stress increased. This process was consistent with the precursors i.e., precursors were first recorded near the top and later at the center and finally at the bottom of the specimen. Interestingly, precursors from reflected waves were observed first, followed by precursors from transmitted and then by converted waves. Also, the differences in time of occurrence between the three precursor modes decreased along the plane of the discontinuity. The results showed that reflected waves were the most sensitive to damage and slip along a discontinuity and that monitoring for precursors may provide a method for detecting impending failure.
more »
« less
- Award ID(s):
- 1664562
- PAR ID:
- 10324313
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- 55th US Rock Mechanics/Geomechanics Symposium
- Page Range / eLocation ID:
- 1-7
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
More Like this
-
-
contain conspicuous acknowledgement of where and by whom the paper was presented. ABSTRACT: Shear strength along discontinuities plays a crucial role in the stability of rock structures. The development of geophysical methods to remotely monitor and assess changes in shear strength is essential to the identification of rock hazards that can lead to the loss of life and failure of civilian infrastructure. In this study, compressional and shear ultrasonic waves were used to monitor slip along discontinuities (with different surface profiles) during shearing. A series of laboratory direct shear experiments were performed on two gypsum blocks separated by a frictional discontinuity. The gypsum blocks had perfectly matched contact surfaces with a half-cycle sine wave profile that spanned the central third of the discontinuity, surrounded by planar surfaces. The amplitude of the half-cycle sine wave was varied and ranged between 2 to 10 times the height of the asperities. Compressional, P, and shear, S, ultrasonic waves were continuously transmitted and recorded throughout the shearing process, while Digital Image Correlation (DIC) was used to capture surface displacements. At low normal stresses, distinct maxima in the normalized P and S wave transmitted amplitudes occurred before shear failure in regions where dilation was observed. Where dilation was not detected, an increase in transmitted wave amplitude was observed, even after the peak shear stress was achieved. At high normal stresses, dilation was suppressed, which was associated with an increase in wave amplitude with shear stress until the peak, and then a decrease in amplitude. Monitoring changes in transmitted wave amplitude is a potential method for the detection of dilation along rock discontinuities.more » « less
-
Abstract Tectonic faults fail in a continuum of modes from slow earthquakes to elastodynamic rupture. Precursory variations in elastic wavespeed and amplitude, interpreted as indicators of imminent failure, have been observed in limited natural settings and lab experiments where they are thought to arise from contact rejuvenation and microcracking within and around the fault zone. However, the physical mechanisms and connections to fault creep are poorly understood. Here we vary loading stiffness during frictional shear to generate a range of slip modes and measure fault zone properties using transmitted elastic waves. We find that elastic wave amplitudes show clear changes before fault failure. The temporal onset of amplitude reduction scales with lab earthquake magnitude and the magnitude of this reduction varies with fault slip. Our data provide clear evidence of precursors to lab earthquakes and suggest that continuous seismic monitoring could be useful for assessing fault state and seismic hazard potential.more » « less
-
Abstract The goal of this study is to constrain the origins of layering in the seismic velocity structure within the cratonic mantle lithosphere (i.e. mid‐lithospheric discontinuities [MLDs]). For long‐lived stations in cratons worldwide, we calculated S‐to‐P converted phase receiver function stacks using time domain deconvolution and a k‐means algorithm to select robust, consistent receiver functions. Negative MLDs appear in only 50% of the receiver function stacks, indicating that negative MLDs are common but intermittent. The negative MLDs correspond to shear velocity drops of 1%–4%, which could be caused by layers of minerals created by metasomatism, although vertical layering in seismic anisotropy cannot be ruled out. In craton interiors, negative MLDs have a lower amplitude (<3% velocity drops) and can be explained by metasomatism of the original Archean mantle. Negative MLD amplitudes increase with decreasing upper mantle shear velocity (toward the outer margins of the cratons), but do not depend on the age of the craton. Thus, negative MLD amplitudes are not dominated by age‐related variations in the cratonic mantle composition, and, instead, are more strongly correlated with proximity to tectonic and metasomatic activity that occurred long after craton formation. Negative MLDs are less numerous among stations that have Paleoproterozoic and Archean thermotectonic ages, consistent with the view that shallow release of slab‐derived fluids during early “warm” subduction was less favorable for negative MLD formation. We also observe velocity gradients below 150 km at stations in craton boundaries and interiors, indicating the presence of seismic velocity changes at the cratonic lithosphere‐asthenosphere boundary and/or Lehmann discontinuity.more » « less
-
Predicting the onset and timing of fault failure is one of the ultimate goals of seismology. However, our current understanding of the earthquake preparation and nucleation process is limited. One direction towards understanding this process is looking at precursory signals preceding large earthquakes. Previous laboratory experiments have studied robust precursory signals, observed as temporal changes in pressure and shear wave velocities during the seismic cycle. The effects of such precursory velocity changes on the seismic cycle are not well understood. We use numerical models to simulate fully-dynamic earthquake cycles in 2D strike-slip fault systems with antiplane geometry, surrounded by a narrow fault-parallel damage zone. By imposing shear wave velocity changes inside fault damage zones, we investigate the effects of these precursors on multiple stages of the seismic cycle, including nucleation, coseismic, postseismic, and interseismic stages. Our modeling results show a wide spectrum of fault-slip behaviors including fast earthquakes, slow-slip events, and variable creep. One primary effect of the imposed velocity precursor is the facilitation of the otherwise slow-slip event to grow into a fully dynamic earthquake. Furthermore, the onset time of these precursors have significant effects on the nucleation phase of the earthquakes, and earlier onset of precursors causes the earthquakes to nucleate earlier with a smaller nucleation size. Our results highlight the importance of short and long-term monitoring of fault zone structures for better assessment of regional seismic hazard.more » « less
- Free Publicly Accessible Full Text
-
Accepted Manuscript1.0
- Conference Paper:
- The DOI is not currently available.
