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1. Laboratory rotational spectroscopy of acrylamide and a search for acrylamide and propionamide toward Sgr B2(N) with ALMA

   https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202142448  

   Kolesniková, L.; Belloche, A.; Koucký, J.; Alonso, E. R.; Garrod, R. T.; Luková, K.; Menten, K. M.; Müller, H. S.; Kania, P.; Urban, Š. (March 2022, Astronomy & Astrophysics)

   Context. Numerous complex organic molecules have been detected in the universe and among them are amides, which are considered as prime models for species containing a peptide linkage. In its backbone, acrylamide (CH 2 CHC(O)NH 2 ) bears not only the peptide bond, but also the vinyl functional group that is a common structural feature in many interstellar compounds. This makes acrylamide an interesting candidate for searches in the interstellar medium. In addition, a tentative detection of the related molecule propionamide (C 2 H 5 C(O)NH 2 ) has been recently claimed toward Sgr B2(N). Aims. The aim of this work is to extend the knowledge of the laboratory rotational spectrum of acrylamide to higher frequencies, which would make it possible to conduct a rigorous search for interstellar signatures of this amide using millimeter wave astronomy. Methods. We measured and analyzed the rotational spectrum of acrylamide between 75 and 480 GHz. We searched for emission of acrylamide in the imaging spectral line survey ReMoCA performed with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array toward Sgr B2(N). We also searched for propionamide in the same source. The astronomical spectra were analyzed under the assumption of local thermodynamic equilibrium. Results. We report accurate laboratory measurements and analyses of thousands of rotational transitions in the ground state and two excited vibrational states of the most stable syn form of acrylamide. In addition, we report an extensive set of rotational transitions for the less stable skew conformer. Tunneling through a low energy barrier between two symmetrically equivalent configurations has been revealed for this higher-energy species. Neither acrylamide nor propionamide were detected toward the two main hot molecular cores of Sgr B2(N). We did not detect propionamide either toward a position located to the east of the main hot core, thereby undermining the recent claim of its interstellar detection toward this position. We find that acrylamide and propionamide are at least 26 and 14 times less abundant, respectively, than acetamide toward the main hot core Sgr B2(N1S), and at least 6 and 3 times less abundant, respectively, than acetamide toward the secondary hot core Sgr B2(N2). Conclusions. A comparison with results of astrochemical kinetics model for related species suggests that acrylamide may be a few hundred times less abundant than acetamide, corresponding to a value that is at least an order of magnitude lower than the observational upper limits. Propionamide may be as little as only a factor of two less abundant than the upper limit derived toward Sgr B2(N1S). Lastly, the spectroscopic data presented in this work will aid future searches of acrylamide in space. 

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2. Toward the limits of complexity of interstellar chemistry: Rotational spectroscopy and astronomical search for n - and i -butanal

   https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202142848  

   Sanz-Novo, M.; Belloche, A.; Rivilla, V. M.; Garrod, R. T.; Alonso, J. L.; Redondo, P.; Barrientos, C.; Kolesniková, L.; Valle, J. C.; Rodríguez-Almeida, L.; et al (October 2022, Astronomy & Astrophysics)

   Context.In recent times, large organic molecules of exceptional complexity have been found in diverse regions of the interstellar medium. Aims.In this context, we aim to provide accurate frequencies of the ground vibrational state of two key aliphatic aldehydes,n-butanal and its branched-chain isomer, i-butanal, to enable their eventual detection in the interstellar medium. We also want to test the level of complexity that interstellar chemistry can reach in regions of star formation. Methods.We employ a frequency modulation millimeter-wave absorption spectrometer to measure the rotational features ofn- andi-butanal. We analyze the assigned rotational transitions of each rotamer separately using theA-reduced semirigid-rotor Hamiltonian. We use the spectral line survey ReMoCA performed with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array to search forn- andi-butanal toward the star-forming region Sgr B2(N). We also search for both aldehydes toward the molecular cloud G+0.693−0.027 with IRAM 30 m and Yebes 40 m observations. The observational results are compared with computational results from a recent gas-grain astrochemical model. Results.Several thousand rotational transitions belonging to the lowest-energy conformers of two distinct linear and branched isomers have been assigned in the laboratory spectra up to 325 GHz. A precise set of the relevant rotational spectroscopic constants has been determined for each structure as a first step toward identifying both molecules in the interstellar medium. We report non-detections ofn-and i-butanal toward both sources, Sgr B2(N1S) and G+0.693-0.027. We find thatn- andi-butanal are at least 2-6 and 6-18 times less abundant than acetaldehyde toward Sgr B2(N1S), respectively, and thatn-butanal is at least 63 times less abundant than acetaldehyde toward G+0.693−0.027. While propanal is not detected toward Sgr B2(N1S) either, with an abundance at least 5–11 lower than that of acetaldehyde, propanal is found to be 7 times less abundant than acetaldehyde in G+0.693−0.027. Comparison with astrochemical models indicates good agreement between observed and simulated abundances (where available). Grain-surface chemistry appears sufficient to reproduce aldehyde ratios in G+0.693−0.027; gas-phase production may play a more active role in Sgr B2(N1S). Model estimates for the larger aldehydes indicate that the observed upper limits may be close to the underlying values. Conclusions.Our astronomical results indicate that the family of interstellar aldehydes in the Galactic center region is characterized by a drop of one order of magnitude in abundance at each incrementation in the level of molecular complexity. 

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3. Thermal Properties of the Hot Core Population in Sagittarius B2 Deep South

   https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ad1507  

   Jeff, Desmond; Ginsburg, Adam; Bulatek, Alyssa; Budaiev, Nazar; Sánchez-Monge, Álvaro; Bonfand, Mélisse; Battersby, Cara; Meng, Fanyi; Schilke, Peter; Schmiedeke, Anika (February 2024, The Astrophysical Journal)

   Abstract We report the discovery of nine new hot molecular cores in the Deep South (DS) region of Sagittarius B2 using Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array Band 6 observations. We measure the rotational temperature of CH₃OH and derive the physical conditions present within these cores and the hot core Sgr B2(S). The cores show heterogeneous temperature structure, with peak temperatures between 252 and 662 K. We find that the cores span a range of masses (203–4842M_⊙) and radii (3587–9436 au). CH₃OH abundances consistently increase with temperature across the sample. Our measurements show the DS hot cores are structurally similar to Galactic disk hot cores, with radii and temperature gradients that are comparable to sources in the disk. They also show shallower density gradients than disk hot cores, which may arise from the Central Molecular Zone’s higher density threshold for star formation. The hot cores have properties which are consistent with those of Sgr B2(N), with three associated with Class II CH₃OH masers and one associated with an ultra-compact Hiiregion. Our sample nearly doubles the high-mass star-forming gas mass near Sgr B2(S) and suggests the region may be a younger, comparably massive counterpart to Sgr B2(N) and (M). The relationship between peak CH₃OH abundance and rotational temperature traced by our sample and a selection of comparable hot cores is qualitatively consistent with predictions from chemical modeling. However, we observe constant peak abundances at higher temperatures (T≳ 250 K), which may indicate mechanisms for methanol survival that are not yet accounted for in models. 

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4. Rotational spectroscopic study and astronomical search for propiolamide in Sgr B2(N)

   https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202040211  

   Alonso, E. R.; Kolesniková, L.; Belloche, A.; Mata, S.; Garrod, R. T.; Jabri, A.; León, I.; Guillemin, J.-C.; Müller, H. S.; Menten, K. M.; et al (March 2021, Astronomy & Astrophysics)

   null (Ed.)

   Context. For all the amides detected in the interstellar medium (ISM), the corresponding nitriles or isonitriles have also been detected in the ISM, some of which have relatively high abundances. Among the abundant nitriles for which the corresponding amide has not yet been detected is cyanoacetylene (HCCCN), whose amide counterpart is propiolamide (HCCC(O)NH 2 ). Aims. With the aim of supporting searches for this amide in the ISM, we provide a complete rotational study of propiolamide from 6 to 440 GHz. Methods. Time-domain Fourier transform microwave spectroscopy under supersonic expansion conditions between 6 and 18 GHz was used to accurately measure and analyze ground-state rotational transitions with resolved hyperfine structure arising from nuclear quadrupole coupling interactions of the 14 N nucleus. We combined this technique with the frequency-domain room-temperature millimeter wave and submillimeter wave spectroscopies from 75 to 440 GHz in order to record and assign the rotational spectra in the ground state and in the low-lying excited vibrational states. We used the ReMoCA spectral line survey performed with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array toward the star-forming region Sgr B2(N) to search for propiolamide. Results. We identified and measured more than 5500 distinct frequency lines of propiolamide in the laboratory. These lines were fitted using an effective semi-rigid rotor Hamiltonian with nuclear quadrupole coupling interactions taken into consideration. We obtained accurate sets of spectroscopic parameters for the ground state and the three low-lying excited vibrational states. We report the nondetection of propiolamide toward the hot cores Sgr B2(N1S) and Sgr B2(N2). We find that propiolamide is at least 50 and 13 times less abundant than acetamide in Sgr B2(N1S) and Sgr B2(N2), respectively, indicating that the abundance difference between both amides is more pronounced by at least a factor of 8 and 2, respectively, than for their corresponding nitriles. Conclusions. Although propiolamide has yet to be included in astrochemical modeling networks, the observed upper limit to the ratio of propiolamide to acetamide seems consistent with the ratios of related species as determined from past simulations. The comprehensive spectroscopic data presented in this paper will aid future astronomical searches. 

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5. Re-exploring Molecular Complexity with ALMA: Insights into chemical differentiation from the molecular composition of hot cores in Sgr B2(N2)

   https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202554411  

   Belloche, A; Garrod, R T; Müller, H_S P; Morin, N J; Willis, S A; Menten, K M (June 2025, Astronomy & Astrophysics)

   Context. Hot molecular cores correspond to the phase of star formation during which many molecules, in particular complex organic molecules (COMs), thermally desorb from the surface of dust grains. Sophisticated kinetic models of interstellar chemistry describe the processes that lead to the formation and subsequent evolution of COMs in star-forming regions. Aims. Our goal is to derive the chemical composition of hot cores in order to improve our understanding of interstellar chemistry. In particular, we want to test the models by comparing their predictions to the observed composition of the gas phase of hot cores. Methods. We used the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) to perform an imaging spectral line survey of the high mass star-forming region Sagittarius B2(N) at 3 mm, called Re-exploring Molecular Complexity with ALMA (ReMoCA). We modeled under the assumption of local thermodynamic equilibrium the spectra obtained with this survey toward the sources embedded in the secondary hot core Sgr B2(N2). We compared the chemical composition of these sources to that of sources from the literature and to predictions of the chemical kinetics model MAGICKAL. Results. We detected up to 58 molecules toward Sgr B2(N2)’s hot cores, including up to 24 COMs, as well as many less abundant isotopologs. The compositions of some pairs of sources are well correlated, but differences also exist, in particular for HNCO and NH₂CHO. The abundances of series of homologous molecules drop by about one order of magnitude at each further step in complexity. The nondetection of radicals yields stringent constraints on the models. The comparison to the chemical models confirms previous evidence of a high cosmic-ray ionization rate in Sgr B2(N). The comparison to sources from the literature gives a new insight into chemical differentiation. The composition of most hot cores of Sgr B2(N2) is tightly correlated to that of the hot core G31.41+0.31 and the hot corino IRAS 16293–2422 B after normalizing the abundances by classes of molecules (O-bearing, N-bearing, O+N-bearing, and S-bearing). There is no overall correlation between Sgr B2(N2) and the shocked region G+0.693−0.027 also located in Sgr B2, and even less with the cold starless core TMC-1. The class of N-bearing species reveals the largest variance among the four classes of molecules. The S-bearing class shows in contrast the smallest variance. Conclusions. These results imply that the class of N-bearing molecules reacts more sensitively to shocks, low-temperature gas phase chemistry after nonthermal desorption, or density. The overall abundance shifts observed between the N-bearing and O-bearing molecules may indicate how violently and completely the ice mantles are desorbed. 

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