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1. Photoacoustic imaging for surgical guidance: Principles, applications, and outlook

   https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0018190  

   Lediju Bell, Muyinatu A. (August 2020, Journal of Applied Physics)

   null (Ed.)
2. Acoustic Frequency-Based Approach for Identification of Photoacoustic Surgical Biomarkers

   https://doi.org/10.3389/fphot.2021.716656  

   Gonzalez, Eduardo A.; Graham, Camryn A.; Lediju Bell, Muyinatu A. (October 2021, Frontiers in Photonics)

   null (Ed.)

   Spectral unmixing techniques for photoacoustic images are often used to isolate signal origins (e.g., blood, contrast agents, lipids). However, these techniques often require many (e.g., 12–59) wavelength transmissions for optimal performance to exploit the optical properties of different biological chromophores. Analysis of the acoustic frequency response of photoacoustic signals has the potential to provide additional discrimination of photoacoustic signals from different materials, with the added benefit of potentially requiring only a few optical wavelength emissions. This study presents our initial results testing this hypothesis in a phantom experiment, given the task of differentiating photoacoustic signals from deoxygenated hemoglobin (Hb) and methylene blue (MB). Coherence-based beamforming, principal component analysis, and nearest neighbor classification were employed to determine ground-truth labels, perform feature extraction, and classify image contents, respectively. The mean ± one standard deviation of classification accuracy was increased from 0.65 ± 0.16 to 0.88 ± 0.17 when increasing the number of wavelength emissions from one to two, respectively. When using an optimal laser wavelength pair of 710–870 nm, the sensitivity and specificity of detecting MB over Hb were 1.00 and 1.00, respectively. Results are highly promising for the differentiation of photoacoustic-sensitive materials with comparable performance to that achieved with more conventional multispectral laser wavelength approaches. 

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3. Intraoperative laparoscopic photoacoustic image guidance system in the da Vinci surgical system

   https://doi.org/10.1364/BOE.498052  

   Gao, Shang; Wang, Yang; Ma, Xihan; Zhou, Haoying; Jiang, Yiwei; Yang, Kehan; Lu, Liang; Wang, Shiyue; Nephew, Benjamin_C; Fichera, Loris; et al (August 2023, Biomedical Optics Express)

   This paper describes a framework allowing intraoperative photoacoustic (PA) imaging integrated into minimally invasive surgical systems. PA is an emerging imaging modality that combines the high penetration of ultrasound (US) imaging with high optical contrast. With PA imaging, a surgical robot can provide intraoperative neurovascular guidance to the operating physician, alerting them of the presence of vital substrate anatomy invisible to the naked eye, preventing complications such as hemorrhage and paralysis. Our proposed framework is designed to work with the da Vinci surgical system: real-time PA images produced by the framework are superimposed on the endoscopic video feed with an augmented reality overlay, thus enabling intuitive three-dimensional localization of critical anatomy. To evaluate the accuracy of the proposed framework, we first conducted experimental studies in a phantom with known geometry, which revealed a volumetric reconstruction error of 1.20 ± 0.71 mm. We also conducted anex vivostudy by embedding blood-filled tubes into chicken breast, demonstrating the successful real-time PA-augmented vessel visualization onto the endoscopic view. These results suggest that the proposed framework could provide anatomical and functional feedback to surgeons and it has the potential to be incorporated into robot-assisted minimally invasive surgical procedures. 

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4. Prostate‐specific membrane antigen‐targeted photoacoustic imaging of prostate cancer in vivo

   https://doi.org/10.1002/jbio.201800021  

   Zhang, Haichong K.; Chen, Ying; Kang, Jeeun; Lisok, Ala; Minn, Il; Pomper, Martin G.; Boctor, Emad M. (June 2018, Journal of Biophotonics)

   A sensitive, noninvasive method to detect localized prostate cancer, particularly for early detection and repetitive study in patients undergoing active surveillance, remains an unmet need. Here, we propose a molecular photoacoustic (PA) imaging approach by targeting the prostate‐specific membrane antigen (PSMA), which is over‐expressed in the vast majority of prostate cancers. We performed spectroscopic PA imaging in an experimental model of prostate cancer, namely, in immunocompromised mice bearing PSMA+ (PC3 PIP) and PSMA− (PC3 flu) tumors through administration of the known PSMA‐targeted fluorescence agent, YC‐27. Differences in contrast between PSMA+ and isogenic control tumors were observed upon PA imaging, with PSMA+ tumors showing higher contrast in average of 66.07‐fold with 5 mice at the 24‐hour postinjection time points. These results were corroborated using standard near‐infrared fluorescence imaging with YC‐27, and the squared correlation between PA and fluorescence intensities was 0.89. Spectroscopic PA imaging is a new molecular imaging modality with sufficient sensitivity for targeting PSMAin vivo, demonstrating the potential applications for other saturable targets relevant to cancer and other disorders. 

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5. Enhanced Photoacoustic Detection of Heparin in Whole Blood via Melanin Nanocapsules Carrying Molecular Agents

   https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.1c08178  

   Yim, Wonjun; Takemura, Kathryn; Zhou, Jiajing; Zhou, Jingcheng; Jin, Zhicheng; Borum, Raina M.; Xu, Ming; Cheng, Yong; He, Tengyu; Penny, William; et al (January 2022, ACS Nano)