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ABSTRACT We study the formation, evolution, and collapse of dense cores by tracking structures in a magnetohydrodynamic simulation of a star-forming cloud. We identify cores using the dendrogram algorithm and utilize machine learning techniques, including Neural Gas prototype learning and Fuzzy c-means clustering to analyse the density and velocity dispersion profiles of cores together with six bulk properties. We produce a 2-d visualization using a Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP), which facilitates the connection between physical properties and three partially-overlapping phases: i) unbound turbulent structures (Phase I), ii) coherent cores that have low turbulence (Phase II), and iii) bound cores, many of which become protostellar (Phase III). Within Phase II, we identify a population of long-lived coherent cores that reach a quasi-equilibrium state. Most prestellar cores form in Phase II and become protostellar after evolving into Phase III. Due to the turbulent cloud environment, the initial core properties do not uniquely predict the eventual evolution, i.e. core evolution is stochastic, and cores follow no one evolutionary path. The phase lifetimes are 1.0 ± 0.1 × 105 yr, 1.3 ± 0.2 × 105 yr, and 1.8 ± 0.3 × 105 yr for Phase I, II, and III, respectively. We compare our results to NH3 observations of dense cores. Known coherent cores predominantly map into Phase II, while most turbulent pressure-confined cores map to Phase I or III. We predict that a significant fraction of observed starless cores have unresolved coherent regions and that ≳20 per cent of observed starless cores will not form stars. Measurements of core radial profiles in addition to the usual bulk properties will enable more accurate predictions of core evolution.
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This content will become publicly available on March 25, 2026
The Life and Times of Star-forming Cores: An Analysis of Dense Gas in the STARFORGE Simulations
Dense gas in molecular clouds is an important signature of ongoing and future star formation. We identify and track dense cores in the Starforge simulations, following the core evolution from birth through dispersal by stellar feedback for typical Milky Way cloud conditions. Only ∼8% of cores host protostars, and most disperse before forming stars. The median starless and protostellar core lifetimes are ∼0.5–0.6 Myr and ∼0.8–1.1 Myr, respectively, where the protostellar phase lasts 0.1 Myr. While core evolution is stochastic, we find that virial ratios and line widths decline in prestellar cores, coincident with turbulent decay. Collapse occurs over ∼0.1 Myr, once the central density exceeds ≳106cm−3. Starless cores, only, follow line-width–size and mass–size relations,σ∝R0.3andM∝R1. The core median mass, radius, and velocity dispersion scale weakly with the cloud magnetic field strength. We cluster the core properties and find that protostellar cores have >80% likelihood of belonging to three particular groups that are characterized by high central densities, compact radii, and lower virial parameters. Overall, core evolution appears to be universally set by the interplay of gravity and magnetized turbulence, while stellar feedback dictates protostellar core properties and sets the protostellar phase lifetime.
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- PAR ID:
- 10625498
- Publisher / Repository:
- ApJ
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Volume:
- 982
- Issue:
- 2
- ISSN:
- 0004-637X
- Page Range / eLocation ID:
- 138
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
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