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Critical minerals are essential for sustaining the supply chain necessary for the transition to a carbon-free energy source for society. Copper, nickel, cobalt, lithium, and rare earth elements are particularly in demand for batteries and high-performance magnets used in low-carbon technologies. Copper, predominantly sourced from porphyry deposits, is critical for electricity generation, storage, and distribution. Nickel, which comes from laterite and magmatic sulfide deposits, and cobalt, often a by-product of nickel or copper mining, are core components of batteries that power electric vehicles. Lithium, sourced from pegmatite deposits and continental brines, is another key battery component. Rare earth elements, primarily obtained from carbonatite- and regolith-hosted ion-adsorption deposits, have unique magnetic properties that are key for motor efficiency. Future demand for these elements is expected to increase significantly over the next decades, potentially outpacing expected mine production. Therefore, to ensure a successful energy transition, efforts must prioritize addressing substantial challenges in the supply of critical minerals, particularly the delays in exploring and mining new resources to meet growing demands.▪The energy transition relies on green technologies needing a secure, sustainable supply of critical minerals sourced from ore deposits worldwide.▪Copper, nickel, cobalt, lithium, and rare earth elements are geologically restricted in occurrence, posing challenges for extraction and availability.▪Future demand is expected to surge in the next decades, requiring unprecedented production rates to make the green energy transition viable.
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This content will become publicly available on May 30, 2026
The Role of Microorganisms in Shaping Earth's Magnetic History
Geomagnetic methods allow us to explore the behavior of Earth's geodynamo, constrain Earth's composition and structure, and locate critical minerals and other resources essential for modern technologies and the energy transition. The magnetic properties of rocks and sediments are assumed to be stable and largely attributable to inorganic processes. This conventional view overlooks mounting evidence of microorganisms as key players in rock transformations and geological processes. Iron-bearing minerals are ubiquitous in most environments and are commonly used by microorganisms as electron donors and acceptors. Microorganisms modulate rock magnetic properties by creating, altering, and dissolving Fe-bearing minerals, potentially modifying the original magnetization, complicating interpretations of the magnetic record. This review provides an overview of biogenic pathways that modulate magnetic minerals and discusses common, yet underutilized, magnetic methods for capturing such behavior. Appreciating the influence of microbial activities on magnetic properties will improve our interpretations of Earth's geologic past and its elemental cycling.▪Microorganisms modulate rock magnetic properties, challenging traditional views of a geologically stable magnetic record formed solely by inorganic processes.▪Microbial iron cycling modulates magnetic properties modifying magnetic information recorded in rocks.▪Microbial processes may have impacted Earth's magnetic history more deeply than previously understood.▪Recognizing microbial contributions is critical for accurate interpretation of paleomagnetic and environmental magnetic records and could aid in the search for life on other planetary bodies.
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- Award ID(s):
- 2153786
- PAR ID:
- 10655560
- Publisher / Repository:
- Annual Reviews
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
- Volume:
- 53
- Issue:
- 1
- ISSN:
- 0084-6597
- Page Range / eLocation ID:
- 339 to 366
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
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