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Abstract The addition and refreezing of liquid water to Greenland’s accumulation area are increasingly important processes for assessing the ice sheet’s present and future mass balance, but uncertain initial conditions, complex infiltration physics and limited field data pose challenges. Satellite-based L-band radiometry offers a promising new tool for observing liquid water in the firn layer, although further validation is needed. This paper compares time series of liquid water amount (LWA) from three percolation zone sites generated by a localized point-model, a regional climate model,in situmeasurement, and L-band radiometric retrievals. LWA integrates the interplay of liquid water generation and refreezing, which often occur simultaneously and repeatedly within firn layers on diurnal, episodic, and seasonal scales offering insights into methods for measuring and modeling meltwater processes. The four LWA records showed average discrepancies of up to 62% nRMSE, reflecting shortcomings inherent to each method. Better agreement between series occurred after excluding the regional climate model record, lowering nRMSE to 8–13%. The agreement between L-band radiometry and other LWA records inspires confidence in this observational tool for understanding firn meltwater processes and serving as a validation target for simulations of water processes in Greenland’s melting firn layer. 

Abstract. Quantifying the total liquid water amounts (LWAs) in the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) is critical for understanding GrIS firn processes, mass balance, and global sea level rise. Although satellite microwave observations are very sensitive to ice sheet melt and thus can provide a way of monitoring the ice sheet melt globally, estimating total LWA, especially the subsurface LWA, remains a challenge. Here, we present a microwave retrieval of LWA over Greenland using enhanced-resolution L-band brightness temperature (TB) data products from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) satellite for the 2015–2023 period. L-band signals receive emission contributions deep in the ice sheet and are sensitive to the liquid water content (LWC) in the firn column. Therefore, they can estimate the surface-to-subsurface LWA, unlike higher-frequency signals (e.g., 18 and 37 GHz bands), which are limited to the top few centimeters of the surface snow during the melt. We used vertically polarized TB (V-pol TB) with empirically derived thresholds to detect liquid water and identify distinct ice sheet zones. A forward model based on radiative transfer (RT) in the ice sheet was used to simulate TB. The simulated TB was then used in an inversion algorithm to estimate LWA. Finally, the retrievals were compared with the LWA obtained from two sources. The first source was a locally calibrated ice sheet energy and mass balance (EMB) model, and the second source was the Glacier Energy and Mass Balance (GEMB) model within NASA's Ice-sheet and Sea-level System Model (ISSM). Both models were forced by in situ measurements from six automatic weather stations (AWSs) of the Programme for Monitoring of the Greenland Ice Sheet (PROMICE) and the Greenland Climate Network (GC-Net) located in the percolation zone of the GrIS. The retrievals show generally good agreement with both the references, demonstrating the potential for advancing our understanding of ice sheet physical processes to better project Greenland's contribution to the global sea level rise in response to the warming climate. 

Abstract The thermal field within the firn layer on the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) governs meltwater retention processes, firn densification with surface elevation change, and heat transfer from the surface boundary to deep ice. However, there are few observational data to constrain these processes with only sparse in situ temperature time series that do not extend through the full firn depth. Here, we quantify the thermal structure of Western Greenland’s firn column using instrumentation installed in an elevation transect of boreholes extending to 30 and 96 m depths. During the high‐melt summer of 2019, heat gain in the firn layer showed strong elevation dependency, with greater uptake and deeper penetration of heat at lower elevations. The bulk thermal conductivity increased by 15% per 100 m elevation loss due to higher density related to ice layers. Nevertheless, the conductive heat gain remained relatively constant along the transect due to stronger temperature gradients in the near surface firn at higher elevations. The primary driver of heat gain during this high melt summer was latent heat transfer, which increased up to ten‐fold over the transect, growing by 34 MJ m⁻²per 100 m elevation loss. The deep‐firn temperature gradient beneath the seasonally active layer doubled over a 270‐m elevation drop across the study transect, increasing heat flux from the firn layer into deep ice at lower elevations. Our in situ firn temperature time series offers observational constraints for modeling studies and insights into the future evolution of the percolation zone in a warmer climate. 

This archive contains firn temperature data collected at two sites in the western Greenland Ice Sheet percolation zone. The sites, T3 and Crawford Point (CP), are located along the Expéditions Glaciologiques Internationales au Groenland (EGIG) line. The data are time series of firn temperature measured in boreholes drilled to 100 m depth. The boreholes were drilled by hot water methods. The CP measurements span the period June to August, 2019. This borehole was drilled in 2018, so the temperature profile had fully recovered from the drilling thermal disturbance by the start of the time series. The T3 data span the period June 2019 to September 2021. This borehole was drilled in June 2019, so the time series of measurements includes the thermal recovery from drilling (several months) and two subsequent years. The dataset was collected as part of projects funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation. These measurements are associated with additional datasets collected as part of a NSF Arctic Observing Network project, and include measurements at multiple sites on the EGIG line of firn temperature and firn density/ice content. 

Abstract Regional assessments of ice elevation change provide insight into the processes controlling an ice sheet's geometric response to climate forcing. In Southwest Greenland's land terminating sector (SWLTS), it is presumed that ice surface elevation changes result solely from changing surface mass balance (SMB). Here we test this assumption by developing a multi-decadal (1985–2017) record of elevation change from digital elevation models (DEMs) and comparing it to regional climate model output and available records of ice speed. The SWLTS thinned by >12 m on average over the full 32-year period, but the change was highly variable in time and space. Thinning was amplified in the central region of the SWLTS, relative to the north and south. During 1985–2007, the north and south regions demonstrated net thickening while the central region thinned. Regional differences in elevation change are inconsistent with SMB anomalies, indicating that enhanced ice flow in the north and south contributed to thickening during this early time interval. While clear validation in the south is prevented by incomplete velocity data, historical surface speeds in the north were elevated. These findings support the interpretation that changing ice flow can influence ice surface elevation in the slow-moving SWLTS. 

Abstract The geometry and thermal structure of western Greenland ice sheet are known to have undergone relatively substantial change over the Holocene. Evolution of the frozen and melted fractions of the bed associated with the ice-sheet retreat over this time frame remains unclear. We address this question using a thermo-mechanically coupled flowline model to simulate a 11 ka period of ice-sheet retreat in west central Greenland. Results indicate an episode of ~100 km of terminus retreat corresponded to ~16 km of upstream frozen/melted basal boundary migration. The majority of migration of the frozen area is associated with the enhancement of the frictional and strain heating fields, which are accentuated toward the retreating ice margin. The thermally active bedrock layer acts as a heat sink, tending to slow contraction of frozen-bed conditions. Since the bedrock heat flux in our region is relatively low compared to other regions of the ice sheet, the frozen region is relatively greater and therefore more susceptible to marginward changes in the frictional and strain heating fields. Migration of melted regions thus depends on both geometric changes and the antecedent thermal state of the bedrock and ice, both of which vary considerably around the ice sheet. 

Abstract Processes governing meltwater penetration into cold firn remain poorly constrained. Here, in situ experiments are used to develop a grain-scale model to investigate physical limitations on meltwater infiltration in firn. At two sites in Greenland, drilling pumped water into cold firn to >75 m depth, and the thermo-hydrologic evolution of the firn column was measured. Rather than filling all available pore space, the water formed perched aquifers with downward penetration halted by thermal and density conditions. The two sites formed deep aquifers at ~40 m depth and at densities considerably less than the air pore close-off density (~725 kg m −3 at −18°C, and ~750 kg m −3 at −14°C), demonstrating that some pore space at depth remains inaccessible. A geometric grain-scale model of firn is constructed to quantify the limits of a descending fully saturated wetting front in cold firn. Agreement between the model and field data implies the model includes the first-order effects of water and heat flow in a firn lattice. The model constrains the relative importance of firn density, temperature and grain/pore size in inhibiting wetting front migration. Results imply that deep infiltration, including that which leads to firn aquifer formation, does not have access to all available firn pore space. 

Abstract The intermixed thermal and structural framework of cold firn, water-saturated firn and ice layers in Greenland's percolation zone can be challenging to penetrate with core drills. Here, we present our experiences using a hot water drill for research on the firn layer of the percolation zone. We built and deployed a lightweight and easily transportable system for drilling a transect of ~15 cm diameter boreholes through the full firn column thickness, to depths exceeding 100 m. An instrumented drill stem provides a scientific measurement of the firn properties while drilling. The system was successful at gaining rapid access to the firn column with mixed wet and cold conditions, was easily transported to the site and across the glacier surface, and required a small field crew to operate. The boreholes are well suited for in situ investigations of firn processes in Greenland percolation zone.