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Two Lab-on-Chip sensors, one measuring nitrate + nitrite (here after nitrate) and one measuring silicic acid (here after silicate), were deployed on the Ocean Observing Initiative (OOI) Southern Ocean Array surface mooring at a depth of approximately 12m on the near surface instrument frame in the southeast Pacific Ocean (-54 N, -89W). The nitrate sensor operated as expected for the full deployment period (6/12/2018 to 19/1/2020), collecting daily measurements. The silicate sensor operated as expected for almost ten months (until 1/10/2019), collecting up to four measurements per day. The OOI surface mooring was deployed in December 2018 on research cruise DY096 and recovered in January 2020 on research cruise DY112. The sensors and associated research cruises (DY096 and DY112) were supported by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) RoSES Carbon Uptake and Seasonal Trends in Antarctic Remineralisation Depth (CUSTARD) project. This material is based upon work supported by the Ocean Observatories Initiative, which is a major facility fully funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). 

Abstract The US Northeast continental shelf “cold pool” comprises winter‐cooled Shelf Water that is trapped below the warm surface layer during the stratified season. The regional ecosystem relies on the preservation of winter temperatures within the cold pool throughout the year. Here, we present first evidence of a significant increase in the cold pool's salt content on the US Northeast continental shelf throughout the stratified season, suggesting that shelfbreak exchange contributes strongly to the seasonal erosion of the cold pool. Cold pool salinification rates of remain steady throughout the stratified season, leading to salinity differences of over between April and October. A cold‐pool salinity budget reveals that the observed salinification is caused by an imbalance between cross‐shelf salt fluxes, which deposit salt into the cold pool at all times of year, and the strong seasonal cycle of vertical mixing. During the stratified season, vertical mixing is inhibited and no longer counteracts the cross‐shelf flux, leading to net salinification of the cold pool over the summer. Along‐shelf freshwater advection from upstream is only present in the fall and contributes some additional freshening to shut down the salinification trend. Seasonal variability in the position of the US Northeast shelfbreak front is too small and out of phase to contribute to the salinity increase. The strong relationship between the seasonal cycle of cold pool modification and seasonal stratification points toward the importance of the timing of spring re‐ and fall de‐stratification on near‐bottom continental shelf temperature and salinity. 

Key Points Based on observations and large eddy simulation (LES), we examine diurnal warm layer (DWL) depths for moderate wind conditions with swell Based on LES results, we develop a unified scaling for the minimum DWL depth considering shear and wave‐driven Langmuir turbulence (LT) Observed DWL depths are consistent with LES results that include LT indicating the importance of wave‐driven turbulence on DWL dynamics 

Abstract There is great interest in improving our understanding of the respective roles of the ocean and atmosphere in variability and change in weather and climate. Due to the sparsity of sustained observing sites in the open ocean, information about the air–sea exchanges of heat, freshwater, and momentum is often drawn from models. In this paper observations from three long-term surface moorings deployed in the trade wind regions of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans are used to compare observed means and low-passed air–sea fluxes from the moorings with coincident records from three atmospheric reanalyses (ERA5, NCEP-2, and MERRA-2) and from CMIP6 coupled models. To set the stage for the comparison, the methodologies of maintaining the long-term surface moorings, known as ocean reference stations (ORS), and assessing the accuracies of their air–sea fluxes are described first. Biases in the reanalyses’ means and low-passed wind stresses and net air–sea heat fluxes are significantly larger than the observational uncertainties and in some case show variability in time. These reanalyses and most CMIP6 models fail to provide as much heat into the ocean as observed. In the discussion and conclusions section, long-term observing sites in the open ocean are seen as essential, independent benchmarks not only to document the coupling between the atmosphere and ocean but also to promote collaborative efforts to assess and improve the ability of models to simulate air–sea fluxes. 

Abstract: The ocean absorbs one quarter of the global CO2 emissions from human activity. The community-led Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (www.socat.info) is key for the quantification of ocean CO2 uptake and its variation, now and in the future. SOCAT version 2025 has quality-controlled in situ surface ocean fCO2 (fugacity of CO2) measurements on ships, moorings, sailing yachts, autonomous and drifting surface platforms for the global ocean and coastal seas from 1957 to 2025. The main SOCAT synthesis and gridded products contain fCO2 values with an estimated accuracy of better than 5 μatm. Sensor fCO2 data with an estimated accuracy of better than 10 μatm are separately available. During secondary quality control, marine scientists assign a flag to each data set, as well as WOCE flags of 2 (good), 3 (questionable) or 4 (bad) to individual fCO2 values. Data sets are assigned flags of A and B for an estimated accuracy of better than 2 μatm, flag of C (and D) for an accuracy of better than 5 μatm and a flag of E for an accuracy of better than 10 μatm. Bakker et al. (2016) describe the quality control criteria used from SOCAT version 3 onward. SOCAT quality control cookbooks provide quality control updates (www.socat.info), with (Gkritzalis et al., 2024) used for version 2025. Quality control comments for individual data sets can be accessed via the SOCAT Data Set Viewer (www.socat.info). All data sets, where data quality has been deemed acceptable, have been made public. The main SOCAT synthesis files and the gridded products contain all data sets with an estimated accuracy of better than 5 µatm (data set flags of A to D) and fCO2 values with a WOCE flag of 2. Access to data sets with an estimated accuracy of better than 10 µatm (flag of E) and fCO2 values with flags of 3 and 4 is via additional data products and the Data Set Viewer (Table 8 in Bakker et al., 2016). SOCAT publishes a global gridded product with a 1° longitude by 1° latitude resolution without gap filling. A second product with a higher resolution of 0.25° longitude by 0.25° latitude is available for the coastal seas. The gridded products contain all data sets with an estimated accuracy of better than 5 µatm (data set flags of A to D) and fCO2 values with a WOCE flag of 2. Gridded products are available monthly, per year and per decade. Two powerful, interactive, online viewers, the Data Set Viewer and the Gridded Data Viewer (www.socat.info), enable investigation of the SOCAT synthesis and gridded data products. SOCAT data products can be downloaded. Matlab code is available for reading these files. Ocean Data View also provides access to the SOCAT data products (www.socat.info). SOCAT data products are discoverable, accessible and citable. The SOCAT Data Use Statement (www.socat.info) asks users to generously acknowledge the contribution of SOCAT scientists by invitation to co-authorship, especially for data providers in regional studies, and/or reference to relevant scientific articles. It also asks users to cite the relevant SOCAT data set, the relevant methods paper(s), and to use acknowledgement text (https://socat.info/index.php/citing-socat/). The SOCAT website (www.socat.info) provides a single access point for online viewers, downloadable data sets, the Data Use Statement, a list of contributors and an overview of scientific publications on SOCAT and using SOCAT. Automation of data upload and initial data checks have allowed annual releases of SOCAT from version 4 onwards. Automation of metadata upload is ongoing. SOCAT is used for quantification of ocean CO2 uptake and ocean acidification and for evaluation of earth system models and sensor data. SOCAT products inform on ocean CO2 uptake in the annual Global Carbon Budget since 2013. SOCAT is a key element of the World Meteorological Organization’s (WMO) Global Greenhouse Gas Watch (G3W) program and is a key resource for Copernicus’ evaluations. The annual SOCAT releases by the SOCAT scientific community contribute to United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 13 and SDG 14 (Life Below Water), and to the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. However, since 2022 SOCAT critically relies on support provided by the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the US. This has been sufficient to keep the basic operation running, however this limited support has resulted in SOCAT data architecture not being updated, leading to a system with limited resilience that is highly vulnerable to external factors. Hundreds of peer-reviewed scientific publications and high-impact reports cite SOCAT. The SOCAT community-led synthesis product is a key step in the value chain based on in situ surface ocean carbon measurements, which provides policy makers with critical information on ocean CO2 uptake for policy makers. The need for accurate knowledge of global ocean CO2 uptake and its (future) variation makes sustained funding of in situ surface ocean CO2 observations and their synthesis imperative. 

The ocean absorbs one quarter of the global CO2 emissions from human activity. The community-led Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (www.socat.info) is key for the quantification of ocean CO2 uptake and its variation, now and in the future. SOCAT version 2024 has quality-controlled in situ surface ocean fCO2 (fugacity of CO2) measurements on ships, moorings, sailing yachts, autonomous and drifting surface platforms for the global oceans and coastal seas from 1957 to 2023. The main synthesis and gridded products contain fCO2 values with an estimated accuracy of better than 5 μatm. Sensor fCO2 data with an estimated accuracy of better than 10 μatm are separately available. During quality control, marine scientists assign a flag to each data set, as well as WOCE flags of 2 (good), 3 (questionable) or 4 (bad) to individual fCO2 values. Data sets are assigned flags of A and B for an estimated accuracy of better than 2 μatm, flags of C and D for an accuracy of better than 5 μatm and a flag of E for an accuracy of better than 10 μatm. Bakker et al. (2016) describe the quality control criteria used in SOCAT versions 3 to 2024. Quality control comments for individual data sets can be accessed via the SOCAT Data Set Viewer (www.socat.info). All data sets, where data quality has been deemed acceptable, have been made public. The main SOCAT synthesis files and the gridded products contain all data sets with an estimated accuracy of better than 5 µatm (data set flags of A to D) and fCO2 values with a WOCE flag of 2. Access to data sets with an estimated accuracy of better than 10 µatm (flag of E) and fCO2 values with flags of 3 and 4 is via additional data products and the Data Set Viewer (Table 8 in Bakker et al., 2016). SOCAT publishes a global gridded product with a 1° longitude by 1° latitude resolution without gap filling. A second product with a higher resolution of 0.25° longitude by 0.25° latitude is available for the coastal seas. The gridded products contain all data sets with an estimated accuracy of better than 5 µatm (data set flags of A to D) and fCO2 values with a WOCE flag of 2. Gridded products are available monthly, per year and per decade. Two powerful, interactive, online viewers, the Data Set Viewer and the Gridded Data Viewer (www.socat.info), enable investigation of the SOCAT synthesis and gridded data products. SOCAT data products can be downloaded. Matlab code is available for reading these files. Ocean Data View also provides access to the SOCAT data products (www.socat.info). SOCAT data products are discoverable, accessible and citable. The SOCAT Data Use Statement (www.socat.info) asks users to generously acknowledge the contribution of SOCAT scientists by invitation to co-authorship, especially for data providers in regional studies, and/or reference to relevant scientific articles. The SOCAT website (www.socat.info) provides a single access point for online viewers, downloadable data sets, the Data Use Statement, a list of contributors and an overview of scientific publications on and using SOCAT. Automation of data upload and initial data checks allows annual releases of SOCAT from version 4 onward. SOCAT is used for quantification of ocean CO2 uptake and ocean acidification and for evaluation of climate models and sensor data. SOCAT products inform the annual Global Carbon Budget since 2013. The annual SOCAT releases by the SOCAT scientific community are a Voluntary Commitment for United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14.3 (Reduce Ocean Acidification) (#OceanAction20464). More broadly the SOCAT releases contribute to UN SDG 13 (Climate Action) and SDG 14 (Life Below Water), and to the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. Hundreds of peer-reviewed scientific publications and high-impact reports cite SOCAT. The SOCAT community-led synthesis product is a key step in the value chain based on in situ inorganic carbon measurements of the oceans, which provides policy makers with critical information on ocean CO2 uptake in climate negotiations. The need for accurate knowledge of global ocean CO2 uptake and its (future) variation makes sustained funding of in situ surface ocean CO2 observations and their synthesis imperative. 

The Atlantic Tradewind Ocean-Atmosphere Mesoscale Interaction Campaign (ATOMIC) took place from 7 January to 11 July 2020 in the tropical North Atlantic between the eastern edge of Barbados and 51∘ W, the longitude of the Northwest Tropical Atlantic Station (NTAS) mooring. Measurements were made to gather information on shallow atmospheric convection, the effects of aerosols and clouds on the ocean surface energy budget, and mesoscale oceanic processes. Multiple platforms were deployed during ATOMIC including the NOAA RV Ronald H. Brown (RHB) (7 January to 13 February) and WP-3D Orion (P-3) aircraft (17 January to 10 February), the University of Colorado's Robust Autonomous Aerial Vehicle-Endurant Nimble (RAAVEN) uncrewed aerial system (UAS) (24 January to 15 February), NOAA- and NASA-sponsored Saildrones (12 January to 11 July), and Surface Velocity Program Salinity (SVPS) surface ocean drifters (23 January to 29 April). The RV Ronald H. Brown conducted in situ and remote sensing measurements of oceanic and atmospheric properties with an emphasis on mesoscale oceanic–atmospheric coupling and aerosol–cloud interactions. In addition, the ship served as a launching pad for Wave Gliders, Surface Wave Instrument Floats with Tracking (SWIFTs), and radiosondes. Details of measurements made from the RV Ronald H. Brown, ship-deployed assets, and other platforms closely coordinated with the ship during ATOMIC are provided here. These platforms include Saildrone 1064 and the RAAVEN UAS as well as the Barbados Cloud Observatory (BCO) and Barbados Atmospheric Chemistry Observatory (BACO). Inter-platform comparisons are presented to assess consistency in the data sets. Data sets from the RV Ronald H. Brown and deployed assets have been quality controlled and are publicly available at NOAA's National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) data archive (https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/archive/accession/ATOMIC-2020, last access: 2 April 2021). Point-of-contact information and links to individual data sets with digital object identifiers (DOIs) are provided herein. 

This dataset consists of the Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas Version 2022 (SOCATv2022) data product files. The ocean absorbs one quarter of the global CO2 emissions from human activity. The community-led Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (www.socat.info) is key for the quantification of ocean CO2 uptake and its variation, now and in the future. SOCAT version 2022 has quality-controlled in situ surface ocean fCO2 (fugacity of CO2) measurements on ships, moorings, autonomous and drifting surface platforms for the global oceans and coastal seas from 1957 to 2021. The main synthesis and gridded products contain 33.7 million fCO2 values with an estimated accuracy of better than 5 μatm. A further 6.4 million fCO2 sensor data with an estimated accuracy of 5 to 10 μatm are separately available. During quality control, marine scientists assign a flag to each data set, as well as WOCE flags of 2 (good), 3 (questionable) or 4 (bad) to individual fCO2 values. Data sets are assigned flags of A and B for an estimated accuracy of better than 2 μatm, flags of C and D for an accuracy of better than 5 μatm and a flag of E for an accuracy of better than 10 μatm. Bakker et al. (2016) describe the quality control criteria used in SOCAT versions 3 to 2022. Quality control comments for individual data sets can be accessed via the SOCAT Data Set Viewer (www.socat.info). All data sets, where data quality has been deemed acceptable, have been made public. The main SOCAT synthesis files and the gridded products contain all data sets with an estimated accuracy of better than 5 µatm (data set flags of A to D) and fCO2 values with a WOCE flag of 2. Access to data sets with an estimated accuracy of 5 to 10 (flag of E) and fCO2 values with flags of 3 and 4 is via additional data products and the Data Set Viewer (Table 8 in Bakker et al., 2016). SOCAT publishes a global gridded product with a 1° longitude by 1° latitude resolution. A second product with a higher resolution of 0.25° longitude by 0.25° latitude is available for the coastal seas. The gridded products contain all data sets with an estimated accuracy of better than 5 µatm (data set flags of A to D) and fCO2 values with a WOCE flag of 2. Gridded products are available monthly, per year and per decade. Two powerful, interactive, online viewers, the Data Set Viewer and the Gridded Data Viewer (www.socat.info), enable investigation of the SOCAT synthesis and gridded data products. SOCAT data products can be downloaded. Matlab code is available for reading these files. Ocean Data View also provides access to the SOCAT data products (www.socat.info). SOCAT data products are discoverable, accessible and citable. The SOCAT Data Use Statement (www.socat.info) asks users to generously acknowledge the contribution of SOCAT scientists by invitation to co-authorship, especially for data providers in regional studies, and/or reference to relevant scientific articles. The SOCAT website (www.socat.info) provides a single access point for online viewers, downloadable data sets, the Data Use Statement, a list of contributors and an overview of scientific publications on and using SOCAT. Automation of data upload and initial data checks allows annual releases of SOCAT from version 4 onwards. SOCAT is used for quantification of ocean CO2 uptake and ocean acidification and for evaluation of climate models and sensor data. SOCAT products inform the annual Global Carbon Budget since 2013. The annual SOCAT releases by the SOCAT scientific community are a Voluntary Commitment for United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14.3 (Reduce Ocean Acidification) (#OceanAction20464). More broadly the SOCAT releases contribute to UN SDG 13 (Climate Action) and SDG 14 (Life Below Water), and to the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. Hundreds of peer-reviewed scientific publications and high-impact reports cite SOCAT. The SOCAT community-led synthesis product is a key step in the value chain based on in situ inorganic carbon measurements of the oceans, which provides policy makers with critical information on ocean CO2 uptake in climate negotiations. The need for accurate knowledge of global ocean CO2 uptake and its (future) variation makes sustained funding of in situ surface ocean CO2 observations imperative.