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Stationary longitudinal vortical rolls emerge in katabatic and anabatic Prandtl slope flows at shallow slopes as a result of an instability when the imposed surface buoyancy flux relative to the background stratification is sufficiently large. Here, we identify the self-pairing of these longitudinal rolls as a unique flow structure. The topology of the counter-rotating vortex pair bears a striking resemblance to speaker-wires and their interaction with each other is a precursor to further destabilization and breakdown of the flow field into smaller structures. On its own, a speaker-wire vortex retains its unique topology without any vortex reconnection or breakup. For a fixed slope angle $\alpha =3^{\circ }$ and at a constant Prandtl number, we analyse the saturated state of speaker-wire vortices and perform a bi-global linear stability analysis based on their stationary state. We establish the existence of both fundamental and subharmonic secondary instabilities depending on the circulation and transverse wavelength of the base state of speaker-wire vortices. The dominance of subharmonic modes relative to the fundamental mode helps to explain the relative stability of a single vortex pair compared to the vortex dynamics in the presence of two or an even number of pairs. These instability modes are essential for the bending and merging of multiple speaker-wire vortices, which break up and lead to more dynamically unstable states, eventually paving the way for transition towards turbulence. This process is demonstrated via three-dimensional flow simulations with which we are able to track the nonlinear temporal evolution of these instabilities. 

Dynamically unstable katabatic Prandtl slope flows are studied via numerical simulations and spectral analysis. Results confirm the presence of aperiodic temporal and spatial oscillations in the flow fields due to the emergence and propagation of flow instabilities. Dampeden masseoscillations are observed to dominate the initial oscillatory stage of laminar katabatic slope flows. Stationary longitudinal rolls, which are dominant at shallow slopes, are observed to meander with increasing stratification perturbation parameter and the average distance between the rolls exhibits a strong dependence on slope inclination for slope angles less than . At much steeper slopes, traveling slope waves emerge and they are transported at the mean jet velocity. Both types of instability rolls coexist for certain combinations of dimensionless parameters, forming intricate structures that break into smaller eddies as the flow becomes more dynamically unstable. In the dynamically unstable nonturbulent regime,en masseoscillations are insignificant, but their normalised frequency can be used to discern the type of flow instability.

 

Flow over a surface can be stratified by imposing a fixed mean vertical temperature (density) gradient profile throughout or via cooling at the surface. These distinct mechanisms can act simultaneously to establish a stable stratification in a flow. Here, we perform a series of direct numerical simulations of open-channel flows to study adaptation of a neutrally stratified turbulent flow under the combined or independent action of the aforementioned mechanisms. We force the fully developed flow with a constant mass flow rate. This flow forcing technique enables us to keep the bulk Reynolds number constant throughout our investigation and avoid complications arising from the acceleration of the bulk flow if a constant pressure gradient approach were to be adopted to force the flow instead. When both stratification mechanisms are active, the dimensionless stratification perturbation number emerges as an external flow control parameter, in addition to the Reynolds, Froude, and Prandtl numbers. We demonstrate that significant deviations from the Monin–Obukhov similarity formulation are possible when both types of stratification mechanisms are active within an otherwise weakly stable flow, even when the flux Richardson number is well below 0.2. An extended version of the similarity theory due to Zilitinkevich and Calanca shows promise in predicting the dimensionless shear for cases where both types of stratification mechanisms are active, but the extended theory is less accurate for gradients of scalar. The degree of deviation from neutral dimensionless shear as a function of the vertical coordinate emerges as a qualitative measure of the strength of stable stratification for all the cases investigated in this study.

 

We investigate the stability of katabatic slope flows over an infinitely wide and uniformly cooled planar surface subject to a downslope uniform ambient wind aloft. We adopt an extension of Prandtl’s original model for slope flows (Lykosov & Gutman, Izv. Acad. Sci. USSR Atmos. Ocean. Phys. , vol. 8 (8), 1972, pp. 799–809) to derive the base flow, which constitutes an interesting basic state in stability analysis because it cannot be reduced to a single universal form independent of external parameters. We apply a linear modal analysis to this basic state to demonstrate that for a fixed Prandtl number and slope angle, two independent dimensionless parameters are sufficient to describe the flow stability. One of these parameters is the stratification perturbation number that we have introduced in Xiao & Senocak ( J. Fluid Mech. , vol. 865, 2019, R2). The second parameter, which we will henceforth designate the wind forcing number, is hitherto uncharted and can be interpreted as the ratio of the kinetic energy of the ambient wind aloft to the damping due to viscosity and the stabilising effect of the background stratification. For a fixed Prandtl number, stationary transverse and travelling longitudinal modes of instabilities can emerge, depending on the value of the slope angle and the aforementioned dimensionless numbers. The influence of ambient wind forcing on the base flow’s stability is complicated, as the ambient wind can be both stabilising as well as destabilising for a certain range of the parameters. Our results constitute a strong counterevidence against the current practice of relying solely on the gradient Richardson number to describe the dynamic stability of stratified atmospheric slope flows. 

In the Prandtl model for anabatic slope flows, a uniform positive buoyancy flux at the surface drives an upslope flow against a stable background stratification. In the present study, we conduct linear stability analysis of the anabatic slope flow under this model and contrast it against the katabatic case as presented in Xiao & Senocak ( J. Fluid Mech. , vol. 865, 2019, R2). We show that the buoyancy component normal to the sloped surface is responsible for the emergence of stationary longitudinal rolls, whereas a generalised Kelvin–Helmholtz (KH) type of mechanism consisting of shear instability modulated by buoyancy results in a streamwise-travelling mode. In the anabatic case, for slope angles larger than $9^{\circ }$ to the horizontal, the travelling KH mode is dominant whereas, at lower inclination angles, the formation of the stationary vortex instability is favoured. The same dynamics holds qualitatively for the katabatic case, but the mode transition appears at slope angles of approximately $62^{\circ }$ . For a fixed slope angle and Prandtl number, we demonstrate through asymptotic analysis of linear growth rates that it is possible to devise a classification scheme that demarcates the stability of Prandtl slope flows into distinct regimes based on the dimensionless stratification perturbation number. We verify the existence of the instability modes with the help of direct numerical simulations, and observe close agreements between simulation results and predictions of linear analysis. For slope angle values in the vicinity of the junction point in the instability map, both longitudinal rolls and travelling waves coexist simultaneously and form complex flow structures. 

Chi and colleagues have argued that some of the most challenging engineering concepts exhibit properties of emergent systems. However, students often lack a mental framework, or schema, for understanding emergence. Slotta and Chi posited that helping students develop a schema for emergent systems, referred to as schema training, would increase the understanding of challenging concepts exhibiting emergent properties.

We tested the effectiveness of schema training and explored the nature of challenging concepts from thermodynamics and heat transfer. We investigated if schema training could (a) repair misconceptions in advanced engineering students and (b) prevent them in beginning engineering students.

We adapted Slotta and Chi's schema training modules and tested their impact in two studies that employed an experimental design. Items from the Thermal and Transport Concept Inventory and expert‐developed multiple‐choice questions were used to evaluate conceptual understanding of the participants. The language used by students in their open‐ended explanations of multiple‐choice questions was also coded.

In both studies, students in the experimental groups showed larger gains in their understanding of some concepts—specifically in dye diffusion and microfluidics in Study One, and in the final test for thermodynamics in Study Two. But in neither study did students exhibit any gain in conceptual questions about heat transfer.

Our studies suggest the importance of examining the nature of the phenomena underlying the concepts being taught because the language used in instruction has implications for how students understand them. Therefore, we suggest that instructors reflect on their own understanding of the concepts.