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1. Symmetry Breaking in the Congest Model: Time- and Message-Efficient Algorithms for Ruling Sets

   https://doi.org/10.4230/LIPIcs.DISC.2017.38  

   Pai, Shreyas ; Pandurangan, Gopal ; Pemmaraju, Sriram V. ; Riaz, Talal ; Robinson, Peter ( October 2017 , 31st International Symposium on Distributed Computing (DISC))

   We study local symmetry breaking problems in the Congest model, focusing on ruling set problems, which generalize the fundamental Maximal Independent Set (MIS) problem. The time (round) complexity of MIS (and ruling sets) have attracted much attention in the Local model. Indeed, recent results (Barenboim et al., FOCS 2012, Ghaffari SODA 2016) for the MIS problem have tried to break the long-standing O(log n)-round "barrier" achieved by Luby's algorithm, but these yield o(log n)-round complexity only when the maximum degree Delta is somewhat small relative to n. More importantly, these results apply only in the Local model. In fact, the best known time bound in the Congest model is still O(log n) (via Luby's algorithm) even for moderately small Delta (i.e., for Delta = Omega(log n) and Delta = o(n)). Furthermore, message complexity has been largely ignored in the context of local symmetry breaking. Luby's algorithm takes O(m) messages on m-edge graphs and this is the best known bound with respect to messages. Our work is motivated by the following central question: can we break the Theta(log n) time complexity barrier and the Theta(m) message complexity barrier in the Congest model for MIS or closely-related symmetry breaking problems? This papermore »presents progress towards this question for the distributed ruling set problem in the Congest model. A beta-ruling set is an independent set such that every node in the graph is at most beta hops from a node in the independent set. We present the following results: - Time Complexity: We show that we can break the O(log n) "barrier" for 2- and 3-ruling sets. We compute 3-ruling sets in O(log n/log log n) rounds with high probability (whp). More generally we show that 2-ruling sets can be computed in O(log Delta (log n)^(1/2 + epsilon) + log n/log log n) rounds for any epsilon > 0, which is o(log n) for a wide range of Delta values (e.g., Delta = 2^(log n)^(1/2-epsilon)). These are the first 2- and 3-ruling set algorithms to improve over the O(log n)-round complexity of Luby's algorithm in the Congest model. - Message Complexity: We show an Omega(n^2) lower bound on the message complexity of computing an MIS (i.e., 1-ruling set) which holds also for randomized algorithms and present a contrast to this by showing a randomized algorithm for 2-ruling sets that, whp, uses only O(n log^2 n) messages and runs in O(Delta log n) rounds. This is the first message-efficient algorithm known for ruling sets, which has message complexity nearly linear in n (which is optimal up to a polylogarithmic factor).« less
2. Symmetry Breaking in the CONGEST Model: Time- and Message-Efficient Algorithms for Ruling Sets

   Pai, S ; Pandurangan, G ; Pemmaraju, S. ; Riaz, T ; Robinson, P. ( October 2017 , 31st International Symposium on Distributed Computing (DISC), 2017)

   We study local symmetry breaking problems in the Congest model, focusing on ruling set problems, which generalize the fundamental Maximal Independent Set (MIS) problem. The time (round) complexity of MIS (and ruling sets) have attracted much attention in the Local model. Indeed, recent results (Barenboim et al., FOCS 2012, Ghaffari SODA 2016) for the MIS problem have tried to break the long-standing O(log n)-round “barrier” achieved by Luby’s algorithm, but these yield o(log n)-round complexity only when the maximum degree
   is somewhat small relative to n. More importantly, these results apply only in the Local model. In fact, the best known time bound in the Congest model is still O(log n) (via Luby’s algorithm) even for moderately small
   (i.e., for
   = (log n) and
   = o(n)). Furthermore, message complexity has been largely ignored in the context of local symmetry breaking. Luby’s algorithm takes O(m) messages on m-edge graphs and this is the best known bound with respect to messages. Our work is motivated by the following central question: can we break the (log n) time complexity barrier and the (m) message complexity barrier in the Congest model for MIS or closelyrelated symmetry breaking problems? This papermore »presents progress towards this question for the distributed ruling set problem in the Congest model. A -ruling set is an independent set such that every node in the graph is at most hops from a node in the independent set. We present the following results: Time Complexity: We show that we can break the O(log n) “barrier” for 2- and 3-ruling sets. We compute 3-ruling sets in O  log n log log n  rounds with high probability (whp). More generally we show that 2-ruling sets can be computed in O  log
   · (log n)1/2+" + log n log log n  rounds for any " > 0, which is o(log n) for a wide range of
   values (e.g.,
   = 2(log n)1/2−" ). These are the first 2- and 3-ruling set algorithms to improve over the O(log n)-round complexity of Luby’s algorithm in the Congest model. Message Complexity: We show an (n2) lower bound on the message complexity of computing an MIS (i.e., 1-ruling set) which holds also for randomized algorithms and present a contrast to this by showing a randomized algorithm for 2-ruling sets that, whp, uses only O(n log2 n) messages and runs in O(
   log n) rounds. This is the first message-efficient algorithm known for ruling sets, which has message complexity nearly linear in n (which is optimal up to a polylogarithmic factor).« less
3. On the Hardness and Inapproximability of Recognizing Wheeler Graphs

   https://doi.org/10.4230/LIPIcs.ESA.2019.51  

   Gibney, Daniel ;  Thankachan, Sharma V. ( January 2019 , 27th Annual European Symposium on Algorithms (ESA) 2019)

   In recent years several compressed indexes based on variants of the Burrows-Wheeler transformation have been introduced. Some of these are used to index structures far more complex than a single string, as was originally done with the FM-index [Ferragina and Manzini, J. ACM 2005]. As such, there has been an increasing effort to better understand under which conditions such an indexing scheme is possible. This has led to the introduction of Wheeler graphs [Gagie et al., Theor. Comput. Sci., 2017]. Gagie et al. showed that de Bruijn graphs, generalized compressed suffix arrays, and several other BWT related structures can be represented as Wheeler graphs and that Wheeler graphs can be indexed in a way which is space-efficient. Hence, being able to recognize whether a given graph is a Wheeler graph, or being able to approximate a given graph by a Wheeler graph, could have numerous applications in indexing. Here we resolve the open question of whether there exists an efficient algorithm for recognizing if a given graph is a Wheeler graph. We present - The problem of recognizing whether a given graph G=(V,E) is a Wheeler graph is NP-complete for any edge label alphabet of size sigma >= 2, evenmore »when G is a DAG. This holds even on a restricted, subset of graphs called d-NFA's for d >= 5. This is in contrast to recent results demonstrating the problem can be solved in polynomial time for d-NFA's where d <= 2. We also show the recognition problem can be solved in linear time for sigma =1; - There exists an 2^{e log sigma + O(n + e)} time exact algorithm where n = |V| and e = |E|. This algorithm relies on graph isomorphism being computable in strictly sub-exponential time; - We define an optimization variant of the problem called Wheeler Graph Violation, abbreviated WGV, where the aim is to remove the minimum number of edges in order to obtain a Wheeler graph. We show WGV is APX-hard, even when G is a DAG, implying there exists a constant C >= 1 for which there is no C-approximation algorithm (unless P = NP). Also, conditioned on the Unique Games Conjecture, for all C >= 1, it is NP-hard to find a C-approximation; - We define the Wheeler Subgraph problem, abbreviated WS, where the aim is to find the largest subgraph which is a Wheeler Graph (the dual of the WGV). In contrast to WGV, we prove that the WS problem is in APX for sigma=O(1); The above findings suggest that most problems under this theme are computationally difficult. However, we identify a class of graphs for which the recognition problem is polynomial-time solvable, raising the open question of which parameters determine this problem's difficulty.« less
4. Improved Merlin–Arthur Protocols for Central Problems in Fine-Grained Complexity

   https://doi.org/10.1007/s00453-023-01102-6  

   Akmal, Shyan ; Chen, Lijie ; Jin, Ce ; Raj, Malvika ; Williams, Ryan ( February 2023 , Algorithmica)

   In a Merlin–Arthur proof system, the proof verifier (Arthur) accepts valid proofs (from Merlin) with probability 1, and rejects invalid proofs with probability arbitrarily close to 1. The running time of such a system is defined to be the length of Merlin’s proof plus the running time of Arthur. We provide new Merlin–Arthur proof systems for some key problems in fine-grained complexity. In several cases our proof systems have optimal running time. Our main results include:

   Certifying that a list ofnintegers has no 3-SUM solution can be done in Merlin–Arthur time$$\tilde{O}(n)$$$\tilde{O}\left(n\right)$. Previously, Carmosino et al. [ITCS 2016] showed that the problem has a nondeterministic algorithm running in$$\tilde{O}(n^{1.5})$$$\tilde{O}\left(n^{1.5}\right)$time (that is, there is a proof system with proofs of length$$\tilde{O}(n^{1.5})$$$\tilde{O}\left(n^{1.5}\right)$and a deterministic verifier running in$$\tilde{O}(n^{1.5})$$$\tilde{O}\left(n^{1.5}\right)$time).

   Counting the number ofk-cliques with total edge weight equal to zero in ann-node graph can be done in Merlin–Arthur time$${\tilde{O}}(n^{\lceil k/2\rceil })$$$\tilde{O}\left(n^{\lceil k/2\rceil }\right)$(where$$k\ge 3$$$k\ge 3$). For oddk, this bound can be further improved for sparse graphs: for example, counting the number of zero-weight triangles in anm-edge graph can be done in Merlin–Arthur time$${\tilde{O}}(m)$$$\tilde{O}\left(m\right)$. Previous Merlin–Arthur protocols by Williams [CCC’16] and Björklund and Kaski [PODC’16] could only countk-cliques in unweighted graphs, and had worse running times for smallk.

   Computing the All-Pairsmore »Shortest Distances matrix for ann-node graph can be done in Merlin–Arthur time$$\tilde{O}(n^2)$$$\tilde{O}\left(n^2\right)$. Note this is optimal, as the matrix can have$$\Omega (n^2)$$$\Omega \left(n^2\right)$nonzero entries in general. Previously, Carmosino et al. [ITCS 2016] showed that this problem has an$$\tilde{O}(n^{2.94})$$$\tilde{O}\left(n^{2.94}\right)$nondeterministic time algorithm.

   Certifying that ann-variablek-CNF is unsatisfiable can be done in Merlin–Arthur time$$2^{n/2 - n/O(k)}$$$2^{n/2-n/O\left(k\right)}$. We also observe an algebrization barrier for the previous$$2^{n/2}\cdot \textrm{poly}(n)$$$2^{n/2}·\text{poly}\left(n\right)$-time Merlin–Arthur protocol of R. Williams [CCC’16] for$$\#$$$\#$SAT: in particular, his protocol algebrizes, and we observe there is no algebrizing protocol fork-UNSAT running in$$2^{n/2}/n^{\omega (1)}$$$2^{n/2}/n^{\omega \left(1\right)}$time. Therefore we have to exploit non-algebrizing properties to obtain our new protocol.

   Certifying a Quantified Boolean Formula is true can be done in Merlin–Arthur time$$2^{4n/5}\cdot \textrm{poly}(n)$$$2^{4n/5}·\text{poly}\left(n\right)$. Previously, the only nontrivial result known along these lines was an Arthur–Merlin–Arthur protocol (where Merlin’s proof depends on some of Arthur’s coins) running in$$2^{2n/3}\cdot \textrm{poly}(n)$$$2^{2n/3}·\text{poly}\left(n\right)$time.

   Due to the centrality of these problems in fine-grained complexity, our results have consequences for many other problems of interest. For example, our work implies that certifying there is no Subset Sum solution tonintegers can be done in Merlin–Arthur time$$2^{n/3}\cdot \textrm{poly}(n)$$$2^{n/3}·\text{poly}\left(n\right)$, improving on the previous best protocol by Nederlof [IPL 2017] which took$$2^{0.49991n}\cdot \textrm{poly}(n)$$$2^{0.49991n}·\text{poly}\left(n\right)$time.

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5. Adversarially Robust Coloring for Graph Streams

   Chakrabarti, Amit ; Ghosh, Prantar ; Stoeckl, Manuel ( January 2022 , Leibniz international proceedings in informatics)

   A streaming algorithm is considered to be adversarially robust if it provides correct outputs with high probability even when the stream updates are chosen by an adversary who may observe and react to the past outputs of the algorithm. We grow the burgeoning body of work on such algorithms in a new direction by studying robust algorithms for the problem of maintaining a valid vertex coloring of an n-vertex graph given as a stream of edges. Following standard practice, we focus on graphs with maximum degree at most Δ and aim for colorings using a small number f(Δ) of colors. A recent breakthrough (Assadi, Chen, and Khanna; SODA 2019) shows that in the standard, non-robust, streaming setting, (Δ+1)-colorings can be obtained while using only Õ(n) space. Here, we prove that an adversarially robust algorithm running under a similar space bound must spend almost Ω(Δ²) colors and that robust O(Δ)-coloring requires a linear amount of space, namely Ω(nΔ). We in fact obtain a more general lower bound, trading off the space usage against the number of colors used. From a complexity-theoretic standpoint, these lower bounds provide (i) the first significant separation between adversarially robust algorithms and ordinary randomized algorithms for amore »natural problem on insertion-only streams and (ii) the first significant separation between randomized and deterministic coloring algorithms for graph streams, since deterministic streaming algorithms are automatically robust. We complement our lower bounds with a suite of positive results, giving adversarially robust coloring algorithms using sublinear space. In particular, we can maintain an O(Δ²)-coloring using Õ(n √Δ) space and an O(Δ³)-coloring using Õ(n) space.« less