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1. An Extended Analysis on the Benefits of Dark Mode User Interfaces in Optical See-Through Head-Mounted Displays

   https://doi.org/10.1145/3456874  

   Erickson, Austin; Kim, Kangsoo; Lambert, Alexis; Bruder, Gerd; Browne, Michael P.; Welch, Gregory F. (May 2021, ACM Transactions on Applied Perception)

   null (Ed.)

   Light-on-dark color schemes, so-called “Dark Mode,” are becoming more and more popular over a wide range of display technologies and application fields. Many people who have to look at computer screens for hours at a time, such as computer programmers and computer graphics artists, indicate a preference for switching colors on a computer screen from dark text on a light background to light text on a dark background due to perceived advantages related to visual comfort and acuity, specifically when working in low-light environments. In this article, we investigate the effects of dark mode color schemes in the field of optical see-through head-mounted displays (OST-HMDs), where the characteristic “additive” light model implies that bright graphics are visible but dark graphics are transparent . We describe two human-subject studies in which we evaluated a normal and inverted color mode in front of different physical backgrounds and different lighting conditions. Our results indicate that dark mode graphics displayed on the HoloLens have significant benefits for visual acuity and usability, while user preferences depend largely on the lighting in the physical environment. We discuss the implications of these effects on user interfaces and applications. 

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2. Adapting Michelson Contrast for use with Optical See-Through Displays

   https://doi.org/10.1109/ISMAR-Adjunct57072.2022.00088  

   Erickson, Austin; Bruder, Gerd; Welch, Gregory F. (October 2022, 2022 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality Adjunct (ISMAR-Adjunct))

   Due to the additive light model employed by current optical see-through head-mounted displays (OST-HMDs), the perceived contrast of displayed imagery is reduced with increased environment luminance, often to the point where it becomes difficult for the user to accurately distinguish the presence of visual imagery. While existing contrast models, such as Weber contrast and Michelson contrast, can be used to predict when the observer will experience difficulty distinguishing and interpreting stimuli on traditional dis-plays, these models must be adapted for use with additive displays. In this paper, we present a simplified model of luminance contrast for optical see-through displays derived from Michelson's contrast equation and demonstrate two applications of the model: informing design decisions involving the color of virtual imagery and optimizing environment light attenuation through the use of neutral density filters. 

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3. Adjusting Transparency Toward Optimizing Face Appearance in Optical See-Through Augmented Reality

   https://doi.org/10.2352/J.Percept.Imaging.2024.7.000404  

   Herbeck, Sofie R; Murdoch, Michael J; Thorstenson, Christopher A (October 2024, Journal of Perceptual Imaging)

   Rogowitz, Bernice E; Pappas, Thrasyvoulos N (Ed.)

   Augmented reality (AR) combines elements of the real world with additional virtual content, creating a blended viewing environment. Optical see-through AR (OST-AR) accomplishes this by using a transparent beam splitter to overlay virtual elements over a user’s view of the real world. However, the inherent see-through nature of OST-AR carries challenges for color appearance, especially around the appearance of darker and less chromatic objects. When displaying human faces—a promising application of AR technology—these challenges disproportionately affect darker skin tones, making them appear more transparent than lighter skin tones. Still, some transparency in the rendered object may not be entirely negative; people’s evaluations of transparency when interacting with other humans in AR-mediated modalities are not yet fully understood. In this work, two psychophysical experiments were conducted to assess how people evaluate OST-AR transparency across several characteristics including different skin tones, object types, lighting conditions, and display types. The results provide a scale of perceived transparency allowing comparisons to transparency for conventional emissive displays. The results also demonstrate how AR transparency impacts perceptions of object preference and fit within the environment. These results reveal several areas with need for further attention, particularly regarding darker skin tones, lighter ambient lighting, and displaying human faces more generally. This work may be useful in guiding the development of OST-AR technology, and emphasizes the importance of AR design goals, perception of human faces, and optimizing visual appearance in extended reality systems. 

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4. Effects of Optical See-Through Displays on Self-Avatar Appearance in Augmented Reality

   https://doi.org/10.1109/ISMAR-Adjunct57072.2022.00077  

   Doroodchi, Meelad; Ramos, Priscilla; Erickson, Austin; Furuya, Hiroshi; Benjamin, Juanita; Bruder, Gerd; Welch, Gregory F. (October 2022, Proc.of the IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR) Workshop on Inclusion, Diversity, Equity, Accessibility, Transparency, and Ethics in XR (IDEATExR))

   Display technologies in the fields of virtual and augmented reality affect the appearance of human representations, such as avatars used in telepresence or entertainment applications, based on the user’s current viewing conditions. With changing viewing conditions, it is possible that the perceived appearance of one’s avatar changes in an unexpected or undesired manner, which may change user behavior towards these avatars and cause frustration in using the AR display. In this paper, we describe a user study (N=20) where participants saw themselves in a mirror standing next to their own avatar through use of a HoloLens 2 optical see-through head-mounted display. Participants were tasked to match their avatar’s appearance to their own under two environment lighting conditions (200 lux and 2,000 lux). Our results showed that the intensity of environment lighting had a significant effect on participants selected skin colors for their avatars, where participants with dark skin colors tended to make their avatar’s skin color lighter, nearly to the level of participants with light skin color. Further, in particular female participants made their avatar’s hair color darker for the lighter environment lighting condition. We discuss our results with a view on technological limitations and effects on the diversity of avatar representations on optical see-through displays. 

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5. Comparing Absolute Size Perception in Optical See-Through Augmented Reality and Real World Viewing Using Verbal and Physical Judgments

   https://doi.org/10.1109/VR59515.2025.00055  

   Chiu, Chao-Kuo; Chuang, Jung-Hong; Pagano, Christopher C; Babu, Sabarish V (March 2025, IEEE)

   This empirical evaluation aimed to investigate how size perception differs between OST AR and the real world, focusing on two judgment methods: verbal reports and physical judgments. Using a within-subjects experimental design, participants viewed target objects in different sizes in both AR and real-world conditions and estimated their sizes using verbal and physical judgment methods across multiple trials. The study addressed two key hypotheses: (H1) that size perception in AR would differ from the Real World, potentially due to rendering limitations in OST-HMDs, and (H2) that verbal reports and physical judgments would yield different levels of accuracy due to distinct cognitive and perceptual processes involved in each method. Our findings supported these hypotheses, revealing key differences in size perception between the two judgment methods and viewing conditions. Participants consistently underestimated object sizes when using verbal reports in both AR and real-world conditions, with more pronounced errors in AR. In contrast, physical judgments yielded more accurate size estimates under both viewing conditions. Notably, the accuracy of verbal reports decreased as target sizes increased, a trend that was particularly evident in AR. These results underscore the perceptual challenges associated with verbal size judgments in AR and their potential limitations in applications requiring precise size estimations. By highlighting the differences in accuracy and consistency between verbal and physical judgment methods, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of size perception in OST AR and real-world contexts. 

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