Capturing Sequences of Learners' Self-Regulatory Interactions With Instructional Material During Game-Based Learning Using Auto-Recurrence Quantification Analysis
Title: Capturing Sequences of Learners' Self-Regulatory Interactions With Instructional Material During Game-Based Learning Using Auto-Recurrence Quantification Analysis
Undergraduate students ( N = 82) learned about microbiology with Crystal Island, a game-based learning environment (GBLE), which required participants to interact with instructional materials (i.e., books and research articles, non-player character [NPC] dialogue, posters) spread throughout the game. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: full agency , where they had complete control over their actions, and partial agency , where they were required to complete an ordered play-through of Crystal Island. As participants learned with Crystal Island, log-file and eye-tracking time series data were collected to pinpoint instances when participants interacted with instructional materials. Hierarchical linear growth models indicated relationships between eye gaze dwell time and (1) the type of representation a learner gathered information from (i.e., large sections of text, poster, or dialogue); (2) the ability of the learner to distinguish relevant from irrelevant information; (3) learning gains; and (4) agency. Auto-recurrence quantification analysis (aRQA) revealed the degree to which repetitive sequences of interactions with instructional material were random or predictable. Through hierarchical modeling, analyses suggested that greater dwell times and learning gains were associated with more predictable sequences of interaction with instructional materials. Results from hierarchical clustering found that participants with restricted agency and more recurrent action sequences had greater learning gains. Implications are provided for how learning unfolds over learners' time in game using a non-linear dynamical systems analysis and the extent to which it can be supported within GBLEs to design advanced learning technologies to scaffold self-regulation during game play. more »« less
Dever, Daryn A.; Wiedbusch, Megan D.; Romero, Sarah M.; Smith, Kevin; Patel, Milouni; Sonnenfeld, Nathan; Lester, James; Azevedo, Roger(
, Frontiers in Psychology)
Introduction
Self-regulated learning (SRL), or learners’ ability to monitor and change their own cognitive, affective, metacognitive, and motivational processes, encompasses several operations that should be deployed during learning including Searching, Monitoring, Assembling, Rehearsing, and Translating (SMART). Scaffolds are needed within GBLEs to both increase learning outcomes and promote the accurate and efficient use of SRL SMART operations. This study aims to examine how restricted agency (i.e., control over one’s actions) can be used to scaffold learners’ SMART operations as they learn about microbiology with Crystal Island, a game-based learning environment.
Methods
Undergraduate students (N = 94) were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: (1) Full Agency, where participants were able to make their own decisions about which actions they could take; and (2) Partial Agency, where participants were required to follow a pre-defined path that dictated the order in which buildings were visited, restricting one’s control. As participants played Crystal Island, participants’ multimodal data (i.e., log files, eye tracking) were collected to identify instances where participants deployed SMART operations.
Results
Results from this study support restricted agency as a successful scaffold of both learning outcomes and SRL SMART operations, where learners who were scaffolded demonstrated more efficient and accurate use of SMART operations.
Discussion
This study provides implications for future scaffolds to better support SRL SMART operations during learning and discussions for future directions for future studies scaffolding SRL during game-based learning.
Denver, Daryn; Azevedo, Roger(
, International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education)
Abstract. Game-based learning environments (GBLEs) are being increasingly utilized in education and training to enhance and encourage engagement and learning. This study investigated how students, who were afforded varying levels of autonomy, interacted with two types of informational text presentations (e.g., non-player character (NPC) instances, traditional informational text) while problem solving with CRYSTAL ISLAND (CI), a GBLE, and their effect on overall learning by examining eye-tracking and performance data. Ninety undergraduate students were randomly assigned to two conditions, full and partial agency, which varied in the amount of autonomy students were granted to explore CI and interactive game elements (i.e., reading informational text, scanning food items). Within CI, informational text is presented in a traditional format, where there are large chunks of text presented at a single time represented as books and research articles, as well as in the form of participant conversation with NPCs throughout the environment. Results indicated significantly greater proportional learning gain (PLG) for participants in the partial agency condition than in the full agency condition. Additionally, longer participant fixations on traditionally presented informational text positively predicted participant PLG. Fixation durations were significantly longer in the partial agency condition than the full agency condition. However, the combination of visual and verbal text represented by NPCs were not significant predictors of PLGs and do not differ across conditions.
Dever, Daryn; Azevedo, Roger(
, International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education)
Abstract. Game-based learning environments (GBLEs) are often criticized for not offering adequate support for students when learning and problem solving within these environments. A key aspect of GBLEs is the verbal representation of information such as text. This study examined learners’ metacognitive judgments of informational text (e.g., books and articles) through eye gaze behaviors within CRYSTAL ISLAND (CI). Ninety-one undergraduate students interacted with game elements during problem-solving in CI, a GBLE focused on facilitating the development of self-regulated learning (SRL) skills and domain-specific knowledge in microbiology. The results suggest engaging with informational text along with other goal-directed actions (actions needed to achieve the end goal) are large components of time spent within CI. Our findings revealed goal-directed actions, specifically reading informational texts, were significant predictors of participants’ proportional learning gains (PLGs) after problem solving with CI. Additionally, we found significant differences in PLGs where participants who spent a greater time fixating and reengaging with goal- relevant text within the environment demonstrated greater proportional learning after problem solving in CI.
Taub, M.; Azevedo, R.; Bradbury, A.; Millar, G.; Lester, J.(
, Learning and instruction)
The goal of this study was to assess how metacognitive monitoring and scientific reasoning impacted the efficiency of game completion during learning with Crystal Island, a game-based learning environment that fosters self-regulated learning and scientific reasoning by having participants solve the mystery of what illness impacted inhabitants of the island. We conducted sequential pattern mining and differential sequence mining on 64 undergraduate participants’ hypothesis testing behavior. Patterns were coded based on the relevancy of what items were being tested for, and the items themselves. Results revealed that participants who were more efficient at solving the mystery tested significantly fewer partially-relevant and irrelevant items than less efficient participants. Additionally, more efficient participants had fewer sequences of testing items overall, and significantly lower instance support values of the PartiallyRelevant--Relevant to Relevant--Relevant and PartiallyRelevant--PartiallyRelevant to Relevant--Partially Relevant sequences compared to less efficient participants. These findings have implications for designing adaptive GBLEs that scaffold participants based on in-game behaviors.
Ayala, O.(
, Zone 1 Conference of the American Society for Engineering Education)
There is growing evidence of the effectiveness of project-based learning (PBL) in preparing students to solve complex problems. In PBL implementations in engineering, students are treated as professional engineers facing projects centered around real-world problems, including the complexity and uncertainty that influence such problems. Not only does this help students to analyze and solve an authentic real-world task, promoting critical thinking, but also students learn from each other, learning valuable communication and teamwork skills. Faculty play an important part by assuming non-conventional roles (e.g., client, senior professional engineer, consultant) to help students throughout this instructional and learning approach. Typically in PBLs, students work on projects over extended periods of time that culminate in realistic products or presentations. In order to be successful, students need to learn how to frame a problem, identify stakeholders and their requirements, design and select concepts, test them, and so on. Two different implementations of PBL projects in a fluid mechanics course are presented in this paper. This required, junior-level course has been taught since 2014 by the same instructor. The first PBL project presented is a complete design of pumped pipeline systems for a hypothetical plant. In the second project, engineering students partnered with pre-service teachers to design and teach an elementary school lesson on fluid mechanics concepts. With the PBL implementations, it is expected that students: 1) engage in a deeper learning process where concepts can be reemphasized, and students can realize applicability; 2) develop and practice teamwork skills; 3) learn and practice how to communicate effectively to peers and to those from other fields; and 4) increase their confidence working on open-ended situations and problems. The goal of this paper is to present the experiences of the authors with both PBL implementations. It explains how the projects were scaffolded through the entire semester, including how the sequence of course content was modified, how team dynamics were monitored, the faculty roles, and the end products and presentations. Students' experiences are also presented. To evaluate and compare students’ learning and satisfaction with the team experience between the two PBL implementations, a shortened version of the NCEES FE exam and the Comprehensive Assessment of Team Member Effectiveness (CATME) survey were utilized. Students completed the FE exam during the first week and then again during the last week of the semester in order to assess students’ growth in fluid mechanics knowledge. The CATME survey was completed mid-semester to help faculty identify and address problems within team dynamics, and at the end of the semester to evaluate individual students’ teamwork performance. The results showed that no major differences were observed in terms of the learned fluid mechanics content, however, the data showed interesting preliminary observations regarding teamwork satisfaction. Through reflective assignments (e.g., short answer reflections, focus groups), student perceptions of the PBL implementations are discussed in the paper. Finally, some of the challenges and lessons learned from implementing both projects multiple times, as well as access to some of the PBL course materials and assignments will be provided.
Dever, Daryn A., Amon, Mary Jean, Vrzáková, Hana, Wiedbusch, Megan D., Cloude, Elizabeth B., and Azevedo, Roger. Capturing Sequences of Learners' Self-Regulatory Interactions With Instructional Material During Game-Based Learning Using Auto-Recurrence Quantification Analysis. Retrieved from https://par.nsf.gov/biblio/10342398. Frontiers in Psychology 13. Web. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813677.
Dever, Daryn A., Amon, Mary Jean, Vrzáková, Hana, Wiedbusch, Megan D., Cloude, Elizabeth B., & Azevedo, Roger. Capturing Sequences of Learners' Self-Regulatory Interactions With Instructional Material During Game-Based Learning Using Auto-Recurrence Quantification Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 13 (). Retrieved from https://par.nsf.gov/biblio/10342398. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813677
Dever, Daryn A., Amon, Mary Jean, Vrzáková, Hana, Wiedbusch, Megan D., Cloude, Elizabeth B., and Azevedo, Roger.
"Capturing Sequences of Learners' Self-Regulatory Interactions With Instructional Material During Game-Based Learning Using Auto-Recurrence Quantification Analysis". Frontiers in Psychology 13 (). Country unknown/Code not available. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813677.https://par.nsf.gov/biblio/10342398.
@article{osti_10342398,
place = {Country unknown/Code not available},
title = {Capturing Sequences of Learners' Self-Regulatory Interactions With Instructional Material During Game-Based Learning Using Auto-Recurrence Quantification Analysis},
url = {https://par.nsf.gov/biblio/10342398},
DOI = {10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813677},
abstractNote = {Undergraduate students ( N = 82) learned about microbiology with Crystal Island, a game-based learning environment (GBLE), which required participants to interact with instructional materials (i.e., books and research articles, non-player character [NPC] dialogue, posters) spread throughout the game. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: full agency , where they had complete control over their actions, and partial agency , where they were required to complete an ordered play-through of Crystal Island. As participants learned with Crystal Island, log-file and eye-tracking time series data were collected to pinpoint instances when participants interacted with instructional materials. Hierarchical linear growth models indicated relationships between eye gaze dwell time and (1) the type of representation a learner gathered information from (i.e., large sections of text, poster, or dialogue); (2) the ability of the learner to distinguish relevant from irrelevant information; (3) learning gains; and (4) agency. Auto-recurrence quantification analysis (aRQA) revealed the degree to which repetitive sequences of interactions with instructional material were random or predictable. Through hierarchical modeling, analyses suggested that greater dwell times and learning gains were associated with more predictable sequences of interaction with instructional materials. Results from hierarchical clustering found that participants with restricted agency and more recurrent action sequences had greater learning gains. Implications are provided for how learning unfolds over learners' time in game using a non-linear dynamical systems analysis and the extent to which it can be supported within GBLEs to design advanced learning technologies to scaffold self-regulation during game play.},
journal = {Frontiers in Psychology},
volume = {13},
author = {Dever, Daryn A. and Amon, Mary Jean and Vrzáková, Hana and Wiedbusch, Megan D. and Cloude, Elizabeth B. and Azevedo, Roger},
}
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