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1. Learning Computational Thinking Efficiently with Block-based Parsons Puzzles

   Bender, Jeff; Dziena, Alex; Kaiser, Gail (November 2022, 30th International Conference on Computers in Education (ICCE))

   To investigate learning system elements and progressions that affect computational thinking (CT) learning in block-based environments, we developed a Parsons Programming Puzzle (PPP) module within Scratch with scaffolding customized via a novel Blockly grammar. By varying the presentation and types of feedback encountered between- and within-subjects in a study of 579 adults, we identified features and scaffolding strategies that yield manageable cognitive load (CL), improved CT learning efficiency, and increased motivation, for a general populace. Findings indicate: 1) PPPs with feedback induce lowest CL; 2) an isolated palette, correctness feedback, and fading correctness feedback increase learning efficiency; 3) fading scaffolding can increase CT motivation. We analyze 12 conditions to provide insight to those developing block-based PPP systems with the aim to advance equitable CT education for all. 

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2. Integrating Parsons Puzzles within Scratch Enables Efficient Computational Thinking Learning

   Bender, Jeff; Dziena, Alex; Zhao, Bingpu; Kaiser, Gail (January 2023, Research and practice in technology enhanced learning)

   A literature review revealed that students learning computational thinking via Scratch often require substantial teacher support. We surveyed grade 6-9 teachers to learn their perceptions of student engagement with computational thinking (CT) and how well their needs are met by existing CT learning systems. The results led us to extend the trend of balancing Scratch’s agency with structure to better serve learners and reduce burden on teachers aiming to learn and teach CT. In this paper, we review architecture and implementation strategies developed to integrate Parsons Programming Puzzles (PPPs) with Scratch, and then analyze their effects on adults, who crucially influence the education of their children. The results from our pilot study suggest PPPs catalyze CT motivation, reduce extraneous cognitive load, and increase learning efficiency without jeopardizing performance on transfer tasks. 

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3. Integrating Parsons Puzzles with Scratch

   Bender, Jeff; Zhao, Bingpu; Madduri, Lalitha; Dziena, Alex; Liebeskind, Alex; Kaiser, Gail (January 2021, 29th International Conference on Computers in Education (ICCE))

   null (Ed.)

   We surveyed grade 6-9 teachers to learn teacher perceptions of student engagement with computational thinking (CT) and how well their needs are met by existing CT learning systems. The results and a literature review lead us to extend the trend of balancing Scratch’s agency with structure to better serve learners and reduce burden on teachers aiming to learn and teach CT. In this paper, we integrate Parsons Programming Puzzles (PPPs) with Scratch and analyze the effects on adults, who crucially influence the education of their children. The results from our small pilot study suggest PPPs catalyze CT motivation, reduce extraneous cognitive load, and increase learning efficiency without jeopardizing performance on transfer tasks. 

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4. Leveling the computational playing field: Inquiring about factors predicting computational thinking in constructionist game-based learning

   Troiano, Giovanni M; Abdollahi, Amir; Cassidy, Michael; Machado, Tiago; Harteveld, Casper; Puttick, Gillian (June 2025, Computers and education)

   Pergamon (Ed.)

   Computational thinking (CT) is key in STEM and computer science (CS) education. Recently, there has been a surge in studies inquiring about the factors that predict the CT development of young students. We extend these prior works by inquiring about the factors that predict the CT of students (n = 932) in a constructionist game-based learning (GBL) STEM curriculum. Specifically, after addressing missing data through imputation, we apply Multilevel Modeling (MLM) to identify these potential factors in Scratch games and students’ CT. We found that teachers’ experience implementing game-based curricula, students’ Scratch experience, student choice of game genre, and the interaction between teacher experience and game genre significantly predicted CT. Instead, students’ gender did not emerge as a significant predictor of CT. We provide recommendations for curricula that support CT through constructionist GBL. 

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5. Eliciting Student Scratch Script Understandings via Scratch Charades

   https://doi.org/10.1145/3328778.3366911  

   Franklin, Diana; Salac, Jean; Thomas, Cathy; Sekou, Zene; Krause, Sue (February 2020, SIGCSE '20: Proceedings of the 51st ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education)

   With many school districts nationwide integrating Computer Science (CS) and Computational Thinking (CT) instruction at the K-8 level, it is crucial researchers closely inspect the relationship between program expression and student understandings. In this study, we propose and report on our use of Scratch Charades, a game in which students act out Scratch scripts while others build them. The purpose of Scratch Charades is to familiarize students with scripts and blocks without the cognitive overhead of the complex user interface. However, in this study, we also used it to elicit student understandings about Scratch blocks and scripts to design mnemonics to help students debug their code. We propose two building and/or debugging strategies based on our observations. 

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